Книги, запрещенные на Западе

Books banned in the West (Index librorum prohibitorum). [The short history of Index is as follows. Its direct ancestor can be considered the Decretum of Pope Gelasius (d. November 19, 496) de libris recipiendis vel non recipiendis (in the IV books: 1st - by Pope Damasus - on the books of the Old and New Testaments, 2nd - on councils, 3rd - “on the fathers", 4th - on the apocryphal, heretical and schismatic writings). But the first Index, in a strict and precise sense, appeared in England under Henry VIII in 1526, and in Rome it was compiled under Paul IV in 1557 and published in 1559. The most important of the subsequent Indexes is the one that was developed by the commission appointed at the 18th meeting (February 26, 1562) of the Council of Trent, the same by the council in the general (last) 25th meeting (de indice librorum) on December 4, 1563, it was transferred to the pope for final unification and publication, which was followed by the bull of Pius IV Dominici gregis custodiam of March 24, 1564. Then there were up to 40 editions of the Roman Index (Clement VII, Alexander VII, Benedict XIV, Pius VII, Gregory XVI, Pius IX, Leo XIII by the constitution of January 25, 1897 Officiorum ac munerum). For works that allow correction and are conditionally prohibited, there are Indices librorum prohibitorum et expurgatorum or Indices expurgatorii (the first example of this type appeared in Antwerp in 1571). In Rome, such Indexes were not issued, but for books suitable for correction, a mark was made in the usual Indexes: done with corrigatur. For the correct and regular functioning, Pius V established the Congregatio Indicis in 1571, which received organization in the constitutions of Gregory XIII Ut pestiferum of 1572 and Sixtus V Immense aeterni of January 24, 1587. The Index has the character of a warning for the author, who by submission and repentance can completely restore his reputation (and about this book it is added that Auctor laudabiliter se subjecit et opus reprobavit), and in relation to believers it is a powerful tool to protect them from temptation and hobbies: no Catholic - under pain of excommunication - should neither read, nor keep, nor reprint those contributed. in the Index of books - especially (from Pius IX) those compiled and published in favor of heresy or prohibited by special command of the pope. Only by papal dispensation (at least through the “Congregation of the Index”) can bishops themselves read such books and even allow others to do so, except for works that require special papal permission (in each individual case). Let us now go into some detail regarding the history and contents of Index. So, first of all, it is remarkable that already by the decree of Pope Gelasius, even the works of Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Hermas (“The Shepherd”), Arnobius, Cassian the Roman, Lactantius, Origen (not all), the church history of Eusebius Pamphilus and the “Rule of the Apostles” were included in the list of prohibited books. In the Middle Ages, church councils, with the approval of the popes, condemned and prohibited the reading and keeping of certain works (De divisione naturae by John Scott, Introdnctioin theologiam by Abelard, De metaphysica by Aristotle, the works of Wyclef, Huss and John Wessam, works on the sacrament of repentance by Pedro De Osma). The invention of printing and the beginning of the reform movement prompted the church authorities to establish preliminary censorship (by a bull of Pope Leo X, issued on May 3, 1515 on behalf of the Lateran Council) and more often resort to banning books. Luther's writings provoked several papal bulls and, finally, the Edict of Worms finally banned all of Luther's writings, both those written by him and those that could be written by him, ordering them to be torn up and burned everywhere. But the Edict of Worms was not applied equally in all parts of Germany; King Ferdinand I in the Austrian borders, Duke George in Saxony and Duke Wilhelm in Bavaria took care of its stricter implementation. In the Netherlands, from 1521 to 1550, Charles V published a number of prohibitory orders, threatening various punishments for violating the Edict of Worms. In Spain the Inquisition acted with its characteristic jealousy. Appropriate measures were taken by the government in France, as well as in England. The extent of the measures taken in different countries required a precise indication of the banned works. The first catalog of books, having the nature, volume and order of an “index” in the proper sense, containing a list of prohibited Latin, Dutch and French books, was compiled by the Faculty of Theology of Louvain and printed in 1546 by order of Emperor Charles V; new editions of the catalog by the Faculty of Theology of Louvain were made in 1550 and 1558. The Cologne Council of 1549, having named some dangerous authors, forbade reading them under threat of anathema; the same council in 1550 tried to resolve the issue of books, which books could and could not be allowed for school use. The Paris Sorbonne, having received permission from parliament in 1542, consistently published several catalogs of prohibited books, of which the catalogs of 1547 and 1551. were published as binding by royal edicts. In Spain, the Louvain catalog of 1550 was published in 1551 by Inquisitor General Fernando Valdez; the last one in 1554 published an expurgation index compiled by him, interesting in the sense that they were ordered to take away some books from the owners and, after proper correction (expurgatio), return them to the latter. Catalogs of books banned by local authorities were also published in other countries (for example, Italy). But the first “index” in the proper sense, published under this name (index autorum et librorum), with the authority of the apostolic see obligatory for the entire Roman Catholic Church, appeared in Rome in 1559, having been compiled by the Inquisition on behalf of Pope Paul VI. The “index” itself (index), preceded by the decree of the Inquisition, is divided into three parts: in the first part it indicates those authors whose all works are prohibited; in the second those in which only some works are prohibited, and in the third he lists anonymous works. Each part is in alphabetical order. The “index” includes, among other things, all editions of the New Testament in vernacular languages, some very ancient apocrypha, which have primarily scientific significance, the works of some philologists, lawyers, mathematicians and other scientists who wrote almost nothing on theological issues, translations of the works of Plutarch and Lucian and the works of three Greek theologians of the Middle Ages: Mark of Ephesus, Nicholas Cabasilas and Nilus Kabasilis. In addition, the “index” names 61 printers, all of whose publications – regardless of their content – ​​believers should consider absolutely prohibited for themselves, due to the fact that their printing houses “printed various heretical books.” But there were also books in the “index” that were prohibited conditionally, with the clause “donec corrigatur” (until it is corrected) or something like that: only certain passages were prohibited in them, which in existing copies could only be erased (“extracted”) or corrected with a pen, and in new editions either omitted or changed. With the reservation “donec corrigatur”, by the way, the following were included in the index: “The Decameron” by Boccaccio, “The Furious Orland” by Ariosto, “The Divine Comedy” by Dante, as well as “Controversies” by the learned Jesuit Bellarmin. Other famous Catholic authors included in the index: Machiavelli, Paracelsus, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Nicholas Clemange and Savonarolla. Not without reason, one Roman Catholic scholar, a contemporary of this “index,” called it “The Shipwreck of Books or the Fire of Books.” The Tridentine index of 1564 made significant amendments to the index of Paul IV, excluding from the list of prohibited those authors who “lived piously and thought like a Catholic,” as well as those who are useful for secular science and say nothing about religion and faith. But the ever-increasing increase in the number of Protestant works has made it virtually impossible and essentially unnecessary to include them all in the “index”; there was a need to express a general prohibition to read, possess, print and defend works related to religion, “all Lutherans, Zwinglists, Calvinists, Huguenots, Anabaptists and Anti-Trinitarians and all heretics” - which was the prohibition under Pope Gregory XIII at the end of the 16th century. was included in the famous bull (“Caepae Domini”). Thus, the 16th century marks the end of the first period in the history of the “index,” when the struggle of the Roman Church was directed exclusively against the Reformation. In the second period from the beginning of the XVIII century. the fight with the help of the “index” is carried out primarily against various trends within Catholicism itself that are undesirable to the church. Of course, the works of Protestant theologians sometimes ended up in the “index,” but only those that for some reason attracted special attention: it is not without reason that Protestant scholars look at the inclusion of their works in the “index” as a kind of recommendation. From the time of the main Tridentine “index” to the present day, papal indices continue to be published, containing new additions; but in the second period of the history of the index, “indexes” were published much less frequently by the Spanish Inquisition, Western councils and secular governments. For special impressiveness, the prohibition of books was sometimes carried out through papal bulls and breves. Thus, it took a brevet by Pope Innocent XII in 1699 to ban the work of the French Bishop Fenelon, “An Explanation of the Rules of Saints (men) on the Inner Life.” Dupain’s “New Library of Church Writers,” the first 5 volumes of which were published in 1691, aroused displeasure among the Parisian archbishop and the Inquisition and was later included in the “index”; its author suffered. The Spanish Inquisition in 1691 added 14 volumes of the Bollandists' Acta sanctorum to the "index". Among other church historical works, by the way, volumes 8–10 of “History of the French Church” by Abbot Guette, who later joined the Orthodox Church, were banned (in the 19th century). Huber’s “Philosophy of the Church Fathers” was also included in the index. Along with serious works worthy of respect, there also found a place in the “index” for those that really did not deserve indulgence: for example, “The History of the People of God from its Beginning to the Birth of the Messiah” by the Jesuit Berruyer, about which Jean-Jacques Rousseau said that its author obviously intended to ridicule everything that is most venerable in religion; the writings of another Jesuit, Gardouin, who had a negative attitude towards the Greek biblical text, the writings of the Fathers of the Church and the acts of the most ancient councils, as fabricated, in his opinion, by a bunch of scoundrels in the 13th and 14th centuries; the writings of some authors who expressed extremely strange opinions on issues regarding the Virgin Mary. Since the “index” from the beginning of the 17th century. lists Catholic authors who are somehow objectionable to the throne of the lords, then in the history of the index one can trace some changes in the views of the Catholic Church. In the seventeenth century. works that tended to promote the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary (immaculata conceptio) were banned. And in the 19th century, when the doctrine of the immaculate conception of Mary was elevated to a dogma (precisely in 1854), works directed against the immaculata conceptio began to be included in the “index”. The hostile attitude of the Roman Church towards translations and home reading of the Holy Scriptures is well known. Scriptures. But even in this area one can notice some inconsistency and concessions made especially under the influence of the Reformation: Catholic translations of the books of St. Scriptures in popular languages, the use of which (translations), however, is furnished with well-known rules for Catholics. In addition to Catholic authors, the index sometimes contains, although very rarely, Orthodox authors. The “index” included the publication of the works of Anastasius Sinaita, “The History of the Council of Florence” by Sylvester Syropul, “Refutation of the power of the Pope in the Church” by Nektarios, Patriarch of Jerusalem, the publication of letters of Cyril Lukaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, and “Roman Catholicism in Russia” by Count D. A. Tolstoy. As an interesting fact, it can be noted that the index included the book of the Protestant Gerbinius “The Sacred Kyiv Caves or Underground Kyiv,” apparently because the author admits the existence of incorruptible holy relics in the Kyiv caves. In general, there are very few Protestant theologians in the “index” over the past two centuries. If we move further to non-theological works, then the “index” paid more attention to the philosophical literature of modern times than to the same literature of modern times; of the natural sciences, the one who had to endure the most from the “index” was astronomy (only in 1835, in the new edition of the “index”, Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo were deleted from the list of prohibited authors); From fiction, some French works were included in the “index”, a few German ones and not a single English one. The papal index is compiled and updated by the Inquisition together with the “congregation of the index” (congregatio indicis), which was established by Pius V in 1571. The procedure for examining a book subject to prohibition was finally established by a special bull of Benedict XIV in the middle of the 18th century. The members of the "congregation of the index" must be many cardinals, of whom one is called its prefect; In addition, the congregation has several consultants from different professions and a certain number of informers (delafores), who are obliged to point out that this or that book is harmful. If the book belongs to a Catholic writer, then it is necessary, according to the bull of Benedict XIV, that two consultants in their reviews speak out in favor of condemning the book; and then the reviews, along with the book, are sent to the cardinals for consideration at the next meeting of the “index congregation,” but the final decision belongs to the pope. The Bull of Benedict XIV gives another advantage to Catholic authors by giving them the opportunity to defend themselves and give explanations to censors and judges. Permission to read books included in the index was given in the past with great difficulty, mainly to persons who set themselves the task of refuting the false teachings contained in them. It even got to the point of curiosity: for example, in 1549, the consultants of the Spanish Inquisition themselves were not allowed to read forbidden books, not excluding those that were in their hands because of their position! At present, bishops can allow the reading of forbidden books to those priests who are zealous for their pastoral duties; but for the laity the permission of the papal throne is certainly required. It should be noted, however, that the “index” does not enjoy wide popularity and full authority even in Catholic countries. Around 1870, eleven French bishops insisted to the papal throne on the need to decisively transform the essence of the "index"; For their part, the German bishops declared that the requirements of the “index” “due to changed historical relations can almost nowhere be observed.” Thus, although the “index” was not formally abolished by the papal curia, it has now lost its former meaning and has played its historical role - a predominantly negative role, making it difficult to read and study the Bible and constraining the scientific pursuits of Catholics. Of course, the banning of books took place both in Protestant countries and in the Orthodox East, but there it was not erected into a coherent system and was not a complete analogy to the “index”. In particular, in Russia, from the very beginning of the emergence of writing, prohibitory articles translated from Greek appeared with the names of John the Theologian (for example, in the “Svyatoslav Collection”), Gregory the Theologian, Athanasius and other authoritative church teachers. These separate lists of prohibited books were placed in the Helmsmen (even in the most ancient ones that are still known) and thus received the practical force of church law. Through the gradual addition and expansion of these lists, a rather significant article “On True and False Books” was formed, most of the lists of which belong to the 16th-17th centuries. (published by Kalaidovich in his work on “John, Exarch of Bulgaria”). In this article, some popular superstitions and prejudices are included among the books, in which the compilers saw as much danger as in the false books prohibited by the church. It is, of course, inappropriate to touch here on the broad question of book correction and the fight against schismatics and their writings. It is enough to note an interesting feature of the “excursion” of church books, organized in “Pravilna” at the Moscow printing house. During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, - according to the testimony of his contemporary Kotoshikhin - in the Robbery Order, the guilty were burned alive “for witchcraft, for tampering with books, whoever begins to again interpret thieves against the Apostles, Prophets and Holy Fathers with blasphemy” (Kotoshikhin, About Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, St. Petersburg, 1859, p. 95). Between the monuments that have come down from the time of Alexei Mikhailovich, there is an agreement concluded in Warsaw between Polish nobles and Russian ambassadors: - to destroy printed books reprehensible for Russia and to prohibit, under pain of death, the printing of “dishonorable thieves’ books.” There is a well-known decree of Peter the Great, given in the 20s of the 18th century. Kyiv and Chernigov printing houses, where books “with many objections to the Eastern Church” were printed; The decree forbade the printing of anything other than previous church publications, and even those were ordered to be coordinated in everything with the books of the Great Russian press. Under Peter I, the Spiritual Regulations established spiritual censorship for theological works. Some more interesting information about the attitude of Russian ecclesiastical and secular authorities to translations of Holy Scripture into the popular language. Patriarch Joachim prohibited the translation of the Psalter into Russian, made in 1683 by the translator of the embassy order, Abraham Firsov. In the 19th century, Archpriest G. P. Pavsky’s translation of some Old Testament books was destroyed and various obstacles were placed in the translation activities of Archimandrite Macarius (Glukharev). Finally, in the 1860s, the Ukrainian translation of the Bible undertaken by N. I. Kostomarov was not allowed.