Gregory of Nyssa. Creation of canon

This book contains a description of the conditions for the formation of existing Christian religious and philosophical dogmas during the transition period from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. The role of especially revered saints is covered in detail: Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa, who went down in history as the “great Cappadocians.” The foundations of the continuity of ideas of ancient philosophy in Christian canonical dogmas are revealed. The book can be used as a textbook in studying the history of philosophy and religious studies. Gregory of Nyssa lived in a transitional time, when the demarcation of Antiquity and the Middle Ages took place. The new era was revealing its appearance, and St. Gregory occupies not the last place in defining its features. Hegel previously addressed the comparison of late antique and early Byzantine cultures. He saw the deepest rift, the collision and confrontation of two eras. Hegel formulated their difference extremely succinctly: “Idea and spirit—that, therefore, is where the difference lies” 1 . In this dramatic era, the most important event, according to Hegel, takes place in the history of European thought, in the history of its self-awareness: a person realizes himself as a bearer of spirit, a spiritual substance. “Man,” writes Hegel, “becomes an “object of divine interest,” “an absolute infinite given” 2. Acutely experiencing the crisis of European culture, Max Scheler stated: “We do not have a single idea of ​​man,” pointing to the disunity of theological, philosophical and natural science anthropology. As if entering into a dialogue with him, in 1931 V.V. Zenkovsky argued that the doctrine of the image of God, ontologically included in human nature, has the significance of a constitutive idea in philosophical anthropology, but in the system of modern scientific and philosophical thinking this idea is in a situation of not just oblivion, but exceptional neglect. The teaching about man as the image of God by St. Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 - c. 394) deserves close attention, since it largely answers these requests, possessing universality. Gregory of Nyssa can be considered the founder of anthropology, although, of course, the subject of anthropology and its development occurred in the ancient era. His teaching about man is diverse. It considers: the structure of man at the level of primary elements; at the mechanical level; from a medical and psychological point of view; in the aspect of the theory of knowledge. The anthropology of Gregory of Nyssa interprets the hypostasis of man as the image of God: from the point of view of general issues of existence, in its relation to divine existence and the existence of the created world, the transition from the “old man” to the “new”. In the worldview of the Middle Ages, anthropology occupied an exceptional position: the Christian belief in the Incarnation made theology anthropocentric and anthropology theocentric. The doctrine of man had a hierarchical structure, combining natural sciences, natural philosophy, philosophy, and faith. The first impulse to work on this work, perhaps, was the idea of ​​comparing Gregory of Nyssa’s treatise “On the Structure of Man” with images of early Byzantine art, especially since the central character of medieval art is man. The natural initial train of thought soon found confirmation: the works of Gregory of Nyssa are quoted and commented on by the founders of the theology of icons, and scenes from his homilies are most directly reflected in works of art. Archimandrite Cyprian (Kern) calls the teaching of Gregory of Nyssa about man as the image of God symbolic realism; symbolic realism underlies the canonical art of Byzantium. The comparison of the doctrine of man as the image of God with the formation of the iconographic canon has a theological background: it is no coincidence that both the icon and patristic anthropology are placed on the same level, since they are evidence of the true Incarnation. Anthropology and the theology of the image are combined in a temporal perspective in the era of the approval of the dogma of icon veneration by the Seventh Ecumenical Council (787). The name of Gregory of Nyssa is associated with works on dogmatics, mystical theology, eschatology and angelology, and exegetical works. All these facets of the talent of the Nyssa saint found a vanishing point in his teaching about man. In Gregory's legacy, the treatise “On the Constitution of Man” (379) occupies a central place. It sums up the previous patristic works and lays the foundations for the doctrine of man in the early Middle Ages. Gregory of Nyssa, like other Christian thinkers, called philosophy the “handmaid of theology,” but remained a Hellenic, faithful to it, an expert on Empedocles, Plato, Aristotle, Posidonius, Iamblichus, Clement of Alexandria, Plotinus, Origen. The teaching of St. Gregory is usually viewed in the context of the legacy of the “great Cappadocians.” Under this name, Gregory of Nyssa, Basil the Great (329–379), and Gregory the Theologian (Nazianzen) (329–389 390) entered the history of Byzantine culture. They are called Cappadocians because they come from Caesarea, in Cappadocia, a region of Asia Minor; “great” or “trinity glorifying the Trinity”, they are called theologians who approved the Trinitarian and Christological dogmas of the Christian faith. V.V. Bolotov, and after him Archimandrite Cyprian (Kern), say that Basil the Great became a victim of the Christological disputes that engulfed the East in a fire. Perhaps this definition can be applied to all three participants of the Cappadocian circle. The name of Basil the Great is associated with the rite of the Divine Liturgy. The initial stage of the formation of the ritual of the Byzantine Church is associated with the activities of Gregory the Theologian 3. The Cappadocians are the founders of Asia Minor monasticism. The charter created by Basil the Great subsequently formed the basis of the Studio Charter. The beginning of Christian asceticism is associated with the “books of the fathers.” It was the “books of the fathers,” as evidenced by the Pannonian Life of Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius, that were the first to be translated, along with the Holy Scriptures, into the Slavic language as texts of paramount importance. The Cappadocians made their contribution to the compilation of the Rules of the Holy Fathers, which have the meaning of a legal norm, law, for the life of the church, which were subsequently included in the Nomocanon. The influence of the Cappadocians on the formation of the culture of the Middle Ages is very extensive, since the beginnings of Christian pedagogy and medicine, the theory of music and fine arts, rhetoric and literature are associated with their names. The authors of studies on the history and theory of such seemingly widely separated areas of human activity turn to the “great Cappadocians” - the founders and theorists of these sciences and arts in the culture of the Middle Ages. From the Cappadocian circle, Gregory of Nyssa stands out as a subtle mystic and a brightly gifted philosopher. The conjugation of apparent opposites was not only an individual trait of Gregory and a distinctive property of the symbolic realism of his teaching about man, but also became the principle of paradox as a fundamental ideological principle of the Middle Ages, striving to “cognize unknown knowledge.” In 1081, the Feast of the Three Hierarchs was established: Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian entered the rank of “universal great teachers and saints.” Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa are brothers; they are connected with Gregory the Theologian by ties of friendship and asceticism. Vasily and Gregory came from the family of a rhetorician, which set them apart from their Cappadocian environment: the disposition of the inhabitants of this area was envious and rude. Gregory and Vasily received their primary education from their father. Their family was glorified as martyrs during the time of persecution by Emperor Diocletian. The grandmother of Vasily and Gregory, Macrina Sr., enjoyed moral authority in the family. She deserves special attention as a student and follower of Gregory the Wonderworker, the educator of Asia Minor. Gregory the Wonderworker was a student and successor of Origen, thus, the involvement of the saints in the Alexandrian school, figuratively speaking, was inherited genetically. Origen headed the catechetical school in Alexandria, where, along with theology, ancient philosophy, dialectics, rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy, and geometry were taught. Based on this model, a school was created in Caesarea Palestine, where Gregory the Wonderworker studied with Origen. In his “Gratitude to Origen,” he writes: “Through the natural sciences he explained and examined each subject separately... until... he put into our souls, instead of the unreasonable, a reasonable wonder at the sacred structure of the universe and the impeccable structure of nature. Physiology, beloved by all, teaches this lofty and divinely inspired knowledge. What can we say about the sacred sciences - everyone’s favorite and indisputable geometry and high-flying astronomy?.. He demanded that we engage in philosophy, collecting, to the best of our ability, all the available works of ancient philosophers and poets, without excluding or rejecting anything... nothing was forbidden for us, for we could study every word, both barbarian and Hellenic, and relating to the sacraments (of the Christian faith) and (from the field of) politics, both about the divine and about the human - with complete boldness we could study and explore everything” 4. The pathos of this speech reflects a change in the attitude of Christians towards the heritage of ancient culture: in the first centuries of the existence of Christianity, along with the denial of polytheism, there was also a denial of pagan culture as a whole. Since the times of Clement of Alexandria and Origen, a tendency has been intensifying, called the “apology of culture,” which occurred in Athens, and which the “great Cappadocians” will consistently develop. Gregory the Theologian was the son of the bishop of the city of Nazianza. He studied in Caesarea Cappadocia, Caesarea Palestine and Alexandria, after which he rushed to Athens. There, Vasily and Gregory studied simultaneously with the crowned Neoplatonist Flavius ​​Claudius Julian II, who received the nickname of the Apostate from Christians. The biographies of Basil rarely say that from Caesarea he went to Constantinople (Byzantium). In his funeral homily for Vasily, Gregory the Theologian writes: “...Through the hunger for knowledge, Vasily is led to Byzantium (the leading city in the East); because it was famous for its most accomplished sophists and philosophers, from whom, with natural acuity and talent, in a short time he collected everything that was excellent; and from Byzantium to Athens" 5 . Hopes were pinned on Gregory and Vasily as future professors of the Academy. The pathos of learning is heard in the words of Gregory the Theologian: “I think that everyone who has intelligence recognizes learning as the first good for us. And not only this noblest and ours (learning), which, placing no value on sophistication and pomp in words, has (its object) only salvation, but also external learning, which many Christians, out of ignorance, abhor as unreliable, dangerous and moving away from God” 6. “Golden Athens, the beauty and pride of Hellas,” exclaims Gregory the Theologian, remembering that it was in Athens that he became familiar with philosophy, logic, rhetoric, history, astronomy, medicine, and music theory. Particular attention was paid to rhetoric and sophistry, which were studied using the example of monuments of Attic prose and poetry, the works of Homer, Euripides, and Sophocles. Rhetoric flourished in Athens at that time, but considerable attention was paid to the works of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Democritus, and Epicurus. Yu. A. Shichalin suggests that in the second half of the 4th century, texts from Iamblichus, a student of Porphyry and an expert on Plotinus, as well as the Platonic and Pythagorean traditions of the previous period 7 came to Athens through Priscus. The Cappadocians assimilate the influence of Platonism due to their involvement in the Alexandrian and Athenian traditions with a common desire for middle Platonists and Neoplatonists to bring together the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Pythagoreans. Basil's passion for classical culture turned out to be so intense that, according to Gregory of Nyssa, upon his return from Athens, he “thought too much about his learning and did not find anyone equal to himself” 8. Something similar happened to Gregory himself. In his biographies, as “the seduction of youth,” his love for rhetoric is mentioned, which he taught at a pagan school, wanting to give up the service of a reader for its sake. Gregory of Nyssa, apparently, did not receive a systematic education; he calls Vasily his teacher. Vasily received baptism at the age of about 30 years. Around 357, he visited the ascetics of Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia, after which he himself became the founder of Asia Minor monasticism, settling on the Iris River 9. There, together with Gregory the Theologian, he wrote the Philocalia based on his study of Origen. In 360, Basil was present at the Council of Constantinople. Soon, Bishop Eusebius, having been elected to the caesarean see, brought Vasily closer to himself, ordaining him to the rank of presbyter. Brilliantly educated and experienced in matters of asceticism, Vasily became his indispensable assistant. During this period, the struggle of Basil the Great began with Arianism as a heresy that constituted the most significant threat to Christianity. It was complicated by the fact that the Arians were supported by Emperor Valens II (364–378). It should be noted that Vasily’s knowledge of philosophy was very useful, since Arius transferred the controversy from the sphere of theology to the field of philosophy 10. The fact that the development of the dogmas of the Christian faith, which took the form of a fight against heretical movements, was nothing more than the conceptualization of theological thought 11 deserves close attention. In 370, after the death of Eusebius, Basil was elected to the Caesarian see; exceptional courage, combined with diplomacy and tact, allowed Basil to soften the cruelty of Valens’ persecution and restrain the church from internal discord. To consolidate forces in the fight against heretics, Basil enters into communication with Athanasius of Alexandria and Pope Damasius. For the same reason, he promoted the consecration of his brother Gregory as bishop of the city of Nyssa in 371 and the election of Gregory the Theologian to the newly established episcopal see in Sasima in 372, which extremely complicated the relationship between friends, since Gregory was inclined to a contemplative life rather than administrative activity. Gregory never took up his see and after the death of his parents in 375 he went to Seleucia in Isauria, where he led a contemplative life. In 376, Gregory of Nyssa was deposed by the Arians, he returned to his flock after the death of Emperor Valens in 378. The following year Basil died, both Gregory see their duty in continuing his endeavors. Gregory the Theologian responded to the invitation of the Orthodox community of Constantinople 12. Theodosius I the Great, who ascended the throne in 380, took away the capital's churches from the Arians and practically elevated Gregory the Theologian to the See of Constantipole. In 381, Gregory the Theologian presided over the Council of Constantinople, and Gregory of Nyssa was also present there. The participants of the council did not accept the Cappadocians' formulation about the Divinity of the Holy Spirit; The council was unable to take the dogmatic position, which soon became dominant in the church. In their formulation of the dogma, the Cappadocians relied on the conceptual apparatus of Plotinus, which caused rejection by the eastern members of the council. Gregory the Theologian retired to Nazians. He died in 389 or 390. This is the external outline of the activities of the “great Cappadocians.” From a brief biography we can conclude that the “great Cappadocians” were involved in the tradition of Neoplatonism through the Athenian and Alexandrian schools; the teachings of Plotinus were known to them, most likely, through Athens. In a certain sense, the formation of the philosophical-dogmatic system of the Cappadocians was more the result than the beginning of Christian philosophy. A special merit of the Cappadocians, according to G.V. Florovsky, was a philosophical synthesis, the implementation of which contributed to overcoming the ideological crisis of antiquity. Christian philosophy, which emerged from religious doctrine, became the basis for the emerging culture of the Middle Ages. According to the testimony of Gregory of Nyssa himself, his treatise “On the Structure of Man” became the continuation and completion of Basil the Great’s “Sex Day”, therefore both texts can be considered as a kind of unity in which the picture of the world of the Middle Ages was outlined. According to the figurative expression of V. Veidle, in patristic writing the “majestic picture of the Christian cosmos” takes on contours. It was she who subsequently determined the origin of symbolic forms of liturgical art. The problem of the influence of the anthropology of Gregory of Nyssa on the formation of the iconographic canon has not previously been an independent subject of research, which determines the relevance of the stated topic. The work is devoted to the consideration of the doctrine of man by Gregory of Nyssa in the aspect of his influence on the formation of Byzantine culture and the reception of his symbolic realism in the images of Byzantine culture and canonical art. There is a research tradition in the study of the philosophical thought of patristics and the works of one of its most important representatives - Gregory of Nyssa. The works of Archimandrite Cyprian (Kern) 13, V. M. Lurie 14, A. Martynov 15, V. I. Nesmelov 16, D. I. Tikhomirov 17 are devoted to the anthropological views of Gregory of Nyssa and his treatise “On the Structure of Man”. The work of A. Martynov set the angle of view on the philosophical heritage of Gregory of Nyssa: the author determined the significance of Gregory of Nyssa as an outstanding philosopher of the early Byzantine era, crediting him with the development of a philosophical-dogmatic system, assimilation and overcoming Neoplatonism. Martynov pointed out the involvement of Gregory of Nyssa in the tradition of the Alexandrian philosophical school. The author analyzed the views of Gregory of Nyssa as a philosophical system, the center of which was the doctrine of man as the image of God. In 1995, V. M. Lurie published a new translation of the treatise “On the Structure of Man,” equipped with commentary and notes. The author emphasized the exceptional importance of the treatise in the legacy of Gregory of Nyssa, also due to the fact that many of the anthropological works previously attributed to him turned out to be pseudepigrapha. For the prospects of this work, Lurie’s reference to Gregory of Nyssa’s appeal to Aristotle in the interpretation of form and essence, in cosmological constructions, as well as the author’s attention to Gregory’s scientific interests, is very important. In particular, Lurie draws the reader's attention to the appeals of Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa to the works of Hippocrates and Galen, says that the practice of anatomy was common in Byzantine medicine, and that the saints can be called the founders of Medieval medicine. In our case, this information corrects the angle of view on a completely seemingly distant subject - the attitude to plastic anatomy in Byzantine art. There is a cliché: images of a person are inexplicably and prejudicially considered “planar”, “conventional”, but upon closer examination they are not, distinguished by an accurate knowledge of the plastic anatomy and mechanics of the human body. The abolition of this stereotype develops into the question of the relationship between the ancient canon and the canon emerging in Byzantine art; a knot of continuity and rejection of two great traditions is revealed at the turn of late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages. The problem of the specificity of the cosmological views of the Cappadocians became the subject of study by O. M. Callahan 18 in the article “Greek philosophy and Cappadocian cosmology.” The same work reveals the range of appeals of the Cappadocians to the works of ancient philosophers. The first statement not only makes serious additions to the previous reconstructions of the cosmology of St. Nyssa, but also encourages us to take a more careful and responsible approach to both the interpretation of the cosmological symbolism of the Eastern Christian church and its paintings, and to the code of space-time constructions in European culture up to the present time. The nature of the influence of the cosmological ideas of the Cappadocians on the development of symbolic forms of religious architecture was revealed by A. I. Komech in the article “Symbolism of architectural forms in early Christianity” 19. The treatise “On the Structure of Man” cannot be considered independently of the entire legacy of Gregory of Nyssa, which is very extensive and its interpretation has formed an entire research tradition in domestic and foreign science. The significance and place of the philosophical and dogmatic system of Gregory of Nyssa in the spiritual culture of Byzantium are defined in the works on the history of the Church and patristic theology by E. V. Afonasin 20 , V. V. Bolotov 21 , A. I. Georgievsky 22 , A. P. Golubtsov 23 , S. L. Epifanovich 24 , S. M. Zarina 25 , Abbot Illarion (Alfeev) 26, P. S. Kazansky 27, A. V. Kartashev 28, V. M. Lurie 29, R. F. Taft 30 and others. The works of Archimandrite Porfiry (Popov) 31 and Metropolitan Macarius (Oksiyuk) 32 are devoted to the analysis of the philosophical and dogmatic system of Gregory of Nyssa; they examine the dogmatic theology of Gregory of Nyssa, his eschatological views, asceticism, and angelology. The mystical-dogmatic aspect of the theology of Gregory of Nyssa became the subject of research by V. N. Lossky 33, I. Meyendorff 34 and others. The name of Gregory of Nyssa is mentioned in publications on the history of Byzantine aesthetics and the theology of icon veneration by V. V. Bychkov 35, A. P. Kazhdan 36, V. N. Lazarev 37, J. Matthews 38, L. A. Uspensky 39, P. Florensky 40. These authors are united by their point of view on the subject of research; they are all unanimous in the opinion that it is the teaching of the Cappadocians that should be considered as the starting point in the history of the formation of the canonical art of Byzantium. The problem of the development of the iconographic canon as an independent theoretical problem was stated by K. G. Wagner 41, A. F. Losev 42, E. Panofsky 43 and others. The authors of individual studies came close to posing the question of the influence of Cappadocian philosophy on the figurative structure of Christian art. This is D.V. Ainalov 44, V.M. Zhivov 45, P. Malkov 46, Yu. G. Malkov 47, K. Mango 48, T. Matthews 49. Often they outline the general contours of the concept with a brief mention of Gregory of Nyssa, but these accents are all the more precious. D. V. Ainalov noted the influence of the rhetoric of Gregory of Nyssa on the figurative structure of painting. Yu. G. Malkov in his article “Some aspects of the development of Eastern Christian art in the context of medieval epistemology” stated the important problem of the influence of apophatic theology on the symbolism of art. His article is of great importance, both theoretically and methodologically. The namesake of the previous author, P. Malkov, is busy developing similar issues. He mentions Gregory of Nyssa in terms of the influence of his texts on the formation of the cave symbol in medieval art, rightly pointing to the Platonic origins of this symbolism. The article by V. M. Zhivov is dedicated to Maxim the Confessor, but is of fundamental importance for this work, since its author revealed the influence of the anthropology of the Cappadocians on the formation of liturgical symbolism and revealed the very concept of a liturgical symbol. He also showed that the internal contradiction of Neoplatonism (the gap between the sensual and the noetic) was overcome in the theory of perichoresis, as set out by Gregory of Nyssa, and not - earlier - by Origen. In this aspect, Gregory of Nyssa was the predecessor of Maximus the Confessor and his successors, subsequent authors of liturgical interpretations. Special mention should be made of the works of V.N. Zalesskaya 50, which reveal the order of interaction between patristic exegesis and the figurative structure of the art of “Byzantine antiquity.” Zalesskaya discovered the most consistent and deep approach to the problem of “Christian antiquity”, which has existed in art history since the last century. The author places special emphasis on the influence of the tradition of Alexandrian exegesis on the art of “Byzantine antiquity”; systematizes its varieties. R.V. Svetlov 51 and T. Miller 52 also resorted to the study of Alexandrian exegesis, to which the great Cappadocians were involved. R.V. Svetlov turns to its religious, philosophical and Gnostic origins. T. Miller reveals the historical existence of tradition in the aspect of its influence on the symbolism of the Middle Ages. The tradition of Alexandrian exegesis can and should be considered in the aspect of its interaction with the philosophy and aesthetics of Neoplatonism, which is the subject of the monograph by R.V. Svetlov. In 2000, Yu. A. Shichalin’s monograph on the history of ancient Platonism 53 in the institutional aspect was published. This study became a necessary link, specifying the order of inclusion of the Platonic and Neoplatonic tradition in ancient culture as a whole: this means the practical interaction of Platonism with the institutions of statehood, religion, science, education, etc. The results of Shichalin’s study are also important for considering patristic Neoplatonism, which, in a certain sense, is the teaching of the “great Cappadocians”, since the teaching of Plotinus was also assimilated and overcome. The theoretical problem of the influence of Neoplatonism on the formation of Christian symbolism has not lost its polemical significance to the present day. Some researchers (S. S. Averintsev 54, A. Grabar 55, A. F. Losev, Ts. G. Nesselstrauss 56, E. Panofsky 57) are inclined to see in Neoplatonic aesthetics the basis of the symbolism of the Middle Ages, but some scientists (V. Veidle 58, V. M. Zhivov 59, S. G. Savina 60 and etc.) indicates the fundamental opposition between paganism and Christianity at the level of philosophy and aesthetics. The study of the genesis of symbolic realism is one of the pressing problems of modern science, despite a significant number of fundamental works on the history of early Christian and Byzantine art and culture. These include the works of N. P. Kondakov 61, V. N. Beneshevich 62, F. I. Buslaev 63, A. P. Golubtsov 64, I. I. Gornostaev 65, A. I. Nekrasov 66, N. V. Pokrovsky 67, I. V. Popov 68, E. K. Redin 69, N. I. Troitsky 70, A. S. Uvarov 71, as well as A. V. Bank 72, J. Bequis 73, O. M. Dalton 74, O. Demus 75, E. Kitzinger 76, V. N. Lazarev 77, V. D. Likhacheva 78, D. T. Rice 79 and others. The current level of science is reflected in the publications of T. Velmans 80, L. M. Evseeva 81, O. S. Popova 82, Yu. A. Pyatnitsky 83, O. E. Etingof 84 and others. Analysis of the formation of symbolic realism in philosophy, anthropology and artistic culture requires an expansion of the historical and cultural context, which explains the author’s appeal to works on the history of Byzantium and Byzantine culture. These include monographs by A. A. Vasilyev 85, Yu. A. Kulakovsky 86, “History of Byzantium” edited by S. D. Skazkina 87, research work “The Culture of Byzantium”, undertaken by a team of authors edited by Z.V. Udaltsova, G.G. Litavrin 88, materials of conferences of Byzantinists 89, works by A. Guillou, A.P. Rudakov 90, A.P. Kazhdan 91, L.A. Freiberg 92 and others. Academician A. A. Korolkov 93 introduced “spiritual anthropology” into use in modern philosophy as an independent discipline: it is as close as possible to the starting point of anthropology - the doctrine of Gregory of Nyssa about man. Turning to scientific publications on this topic allows us to conclude that it is possible and necessary to study the influence of the anthropology of Gregory of Nyssa, which itself is called “symbolic realism”, or “mysterious anthropogony”, on the formation of Byzantine culture in general and symbolic realism in the art of Byzantium and the Byzantine ecumene, in particular. The impetus for determining the structure of the work and its sequence was a terminological coincidence, which is far from accidental: “symbolic realism” in theology simultaneously refers to both the way of representing things in the canonical art of Byzantium and the teaching about man of the Nyssa saint. Identifying the relationship between the genesis of the symbolic realism of the anthropology of Gregory of Nyssa and the symbolic realism of the canon became the goal of the work and determined its sequence and structure. Hegel G.W.F. Lectures on the history of philosophy. T. I. – St. Petersburg, 1999. P. 146. 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