I. История греческого языка до κοινὴ

In the history of the Greek language are most important As far as we can trace back centuries, the Greek language has always been divided into a certain number of dialects. If language is a means of communication between a larger mass of people with different inclinations and vocations, with special social strata, differently conditioned climatically or in other similar ways, then a dialect is the dialect of a certain group of individuals related by origin, socially or in another similar way. And it was Hellas, so strongly dissected by mountains and bays, that had in its language a whole series of sharply separated dialects. Previously, four of them were distinguished: Ionic, Attic, Doric, Aeolian, and with the essential identity of Attic and Ionic - only three; but now - with a more clear penetration into the subject - they think differently 8: a) Western Greek dialects, which are 1) Dorian dialects 9, 2) the dialect of Achaia 10, 3) the dialect of Elis 11 and 4) northwestern Greek 12; b) Central Greek dialects: 5) Aetolian 13, 6) Arcadian-Cypriot 14, 7) Pamphylian 15; c) Eastern Greek dialects: 8) Ionian-Attic: I) Ionian and II) Attic 16. We will see that they contained seeds, which later grew into a branchy tree. If a desire to develop a more or less common language is soon revealed in Hellas, then both politics and literature - these two rulers of the Greek spirit - contributed to this. The first literary language is found in Homer, which generally belongs to the Ionian dialect, but also contains many Aeolian linguistic elements. However, these are not archaisms of the Ionian dialect, and they must be directly derived from Aeolian, where, perhaps, the epic originated, while it was later adopted by the Ionians. Homer's language is an independent artificial language independent of dialects: it also dominates in later epics, in philosophical edifying poems and in epigrams. And the language of Ionian lyricism was to a certain extent influenced by the epic language, as the same is quite true for the most ancient Ionian prose. Herodotus is also recognized as a representative of the “variegated language” 17. But the later, more ancient common language is Attic. Its development followed two parallel trends - the literary Attic language and the popular Attic language: of which the latter led to the “common Greek language” or κοινὴ, which is of particular interest to us here, to which the language of the New Testament also belongs. It is no wonder that the Attic language acquired outstanding importance. At the end of the Persian Wars (in 449), Athens, thanks to the wise, deliberate and expedient policy of Themistocles, Cimon and others, became the focal point of the great Attic maritime alliance. And according to the power of Athens itself, its importance as a trading harbor and the center of all arts and sciences, its language acquired equally predominant importance. Allies came to Athens, and the Athenians spread into the areas of the union through their garrisons, through civil colonies and through general allied enterprises under the leadership of Athens, thereby gradually establishing the influence of their language among the allies. We have already seen above that the Ionian dialect, due to its ancient significance, temporarily still retained a prominent position and still influenced the Attic dialect. We see this in the historian Thucydides in his Ionian κηρúσσω vm. Attic κηρúττω, in its undefined. inclination of the goal, which before it is already found in the mixed language of Homer, and after it - in the language of N. Z., meanwhile, in Attic artificial prose is completely pushed aside, in his τοũ (μή) with undefined. mood also to express the purpose, as is again found in N.Z. 18. Date also belongs here. pad. the actor in the suffering. pledge. This period, which extends until the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404), can be called Old Attic. But then the time came when everything that could mean anything, was worth anything, rushed to Athens, where the Attic language, in precisely this capacity, rose to the level of a literary language proper. Gorgias of Leontinus began (around 427) to write in Attic for the first time. From about the year 400 BC. Chr. The Middle Attic period lasts until the year 350, the brilliant representatives of which can be such men as Lysias, Isocrates, Xenophon and Plato, and its oldest full-fledged monument can be considered the pseudo-Xenophonic work De republica Atheniensi from around 413. 19 It became fashionable to write in Attic. If Thucydides and his contemporaries still accepted many different Ionian linguistic elements, then Attic elements began to penetrate more and more into the Ionian dialect, opening up the place for the triumph of the Attic language. At the same time, the latter not only transforms the Ionian dialect, but also again reveals its influence. This process of linguistic generalization has been gradually going on since 400 - first of all in proper names, and then in declensions. Even Pseudoxenophon in De republica Atheniensi says (XI, 3): “The Athenians have something that is collected and compiled from all the Greeks and barbarians.” And so in Aristotle and, above all, in Xenophon, who lived outside Athens for a long time, we can see the invasion of numerous Ionisms, especially in the dictionary 20. And due to the great foreign relationships during the period of the Neo-Attic language, an increasingly strong influence of foreign elements is revealed: the dual number disappears, the ῃ of the subjunctive mood is mixed with the ει of the indicative, proper names modified according to the 3rd declension, for example, Dημοσθένης, are equated with the names of the 1st declension, etc. It is now clear that the “pure” Attic dialect actually reigned for no more than a generation. The process of development of a living language moves forward uncontrollably, and “Attic” writers do not remain stuck with the Attic language of its heyday. Foreign elements are invading more and more. Polyvius and his successors before the river. Chr. in fact, they wrote in a Greek language that is difficult to distinguish from the popular Attic language now described 21. Classical Attic is virtually extinct. But Attic scrupulosity gradually began to stir again. Just as now educated Greeks, in contrast to the “language of the peasants,” try to artificially revive and apply the ancient Greek language of the Byzantines, so during the time of Dionysius of Halicarnassus (about 50 BC) and his successors, archaistic aspirations led to the period of neo-Atticism, when they really wanted to artificially revive the ancient Attic language, without completely rejecting the “new” language (as evidenced by the example of Lucian of Samosata). These aspirations did not achieve their goal, and they were replaced by Byzantine, which grew out of the ancient Greek “folk language” (κοινὴ). 4. Attic vernacular This “folk language” deserves special attention because from it there is a direct line to the N.Z. language. It existed from the very beginning along with the literary language. The sources for his research are the comedies of Aristophanes and younger representatives of this type of literary creativity, who repeatedly depict Attic philistines and peasants speaking their jargon - and then inscriptions. Both now and then the lower classes of the population were especially accessible to foreign linguistic influences. Characteristic of this language: confusion of short e proper. o with a long one, then the disappearance of some vowel sounds (for example, in the folk Athenian language ἐποίησν is used instead of ἐποίησεν, etc.), as well as the greatest possible simplification of pronunciation, when, for example, the difference between the sounds t and f, etc. is smoothed out. It was this Athenian-Attic folk language that became the popular Greek language, spreading and growing from its permanent center over increasingly vast areas. At the same time, he both gave and took, which is true primarily in relation to the Ionian dialect. He resisted forms of Ionian origin even less than the Attic literary language, and moreover, in such a way that the strength of his resistance to foreign forms decreases, the further he moves away from his native Attic soil. Therefore, in their homeland almost until 300 BC. Chr. it remains more “Attic”, meanwhile, outside of it it had already been subject to Ionian influence much earlier. The Ionian word νάος - “church” is found in Attic monuments from the island of Delos already in the 4th century, and in Attica itself only from 252. The Ionian σσ, ascertained by Thucydides, instead of the Attic ττ (in κηρúσσω next to κηρúττω) is put forward along with the latter first outside Attica, but for a long time he does not find any ground for himself in it, until later he finally captures both areas. The also mentioned γίνομαι, being a rule outside Attica, is found in it only from 292 BC. Chr., judging by the inscriptions. Ionian ἕνεκε(ν) – “for, for the sake of” outside Attica already in the 4th century. as often as the corresponding Attic ενεκα, but in Attica it was almost completely absent at that time, and it comes to the fore only in the 2nd century. This Ionian linguistic influence was fully established in the Greek vernacular. Even in N.Z. the vocabulary is largely Ionian in character, and often in forms as well. It can be said that by the time of Alexander the Great, the “common language,” κοινὴ, or “the Attic language that passed through the Ionian environment,” was already a language with an Attic base and an Ionian weft. But, remaking the internal character of the Attic vernacular language after its own model, the Ionian, however, retreated before it step by step. The dreams of the Athenians about political dominion everywhere were pitifully dashed, but the Attic folk language took possession of one area of ​​Hellas after another: first the Ionian islands, then Ionian Asia Minor (in the 3rd century BC), somewhat later also the Aeolian, then Thessaly and Boeotia (both of the latter also BC). So, according to the listing of Prof. Albert Thumb (Handbuch der griech. Dialekte in Indogermanische Bibliothek, herausgegeben von Hirt und Streitberg, I, 1:8, Heidelberg 1909, S. 70 ff.), which generally coincides with the classification of Prof. K. Brugmann, Griechische Grammatik, München 3 1900, S. 15 ff. Used in Laconia with Tarentum and Herakleia, in Messenia, Argolis with Aegina, in Corinth with Kerkyra and other colonies, equally in Phlia and Sicyon, in Megara with colonies, in Crete, Melos and Thera with Cyrene, in Rhodes with Gela and Agrigentum, also in Carpathos, Kalymnos, Kos, Knidos and others, in the Doric regions of Sicily. There a is retained (transformed into ē in Attic-Ionic), a+o is reduced to ā and a+ӗ to e, the so-called Doric future πραξῶ, δωσῶ, πεσοũμαι is formed, verbs in -ζω have a guttural root character in these dialects, for example, ψαφίξασθαι, ἐδοκίμαξα, ἐργαξοũνται (both last phenomena especially also in Attic). Messenian, as later in many different ways in κοινὴ, forms dates in the 3rd declension. pad. plural numbers similar to roots in -ο, for example, πολέοις instead of πόλεσι, πλειόνοις instead of πλείοσιν; verbs ending in -μι, e.g. ὄμνυμι, often ends (again similar to the same phenomena in the popular language) with -ω; subjunctive mood in the 3rd person singular. numbers are sometimes formed by -ει instead of ῃ, as also happened later in popular speech. The confusion often observed in κοινὴ of verba contracta in -αω with those in -εω is found in Rhodes. Atticus from τιμάουσα forms τιμῶσα, and the Rhodian (as also in the Greek translation of the LXX and in a number of the best manuscripts of the New Testament) τιμοῦσα, τιμοῦντας, τιμεῖν. If, further, the Apostle Paul in a well-known place in the Epistle to the Galatians (Gal. 3:28) used the form οὐκ ἔνι, then the Sicilian, instead of ἐστίν, used an interesting form ἐντί, which Thumb (Handbuch. S. 155) considers to be a locally limited feature of the Young Dorian dialect; however, the Hibeh papyri also give (according to Thumb ibid.) ἔνο instead of ἔνεστιν. It is curious that the Laconian dialect (in accordance with the unyielding character of this tribe) has survived to this day in the Laconian dialect used in Parnon, although, of course, mixed with Hellenistic elements. It also contains the future forms mentioned in Dorian, as well as the aorist verbs in -ζω, vin. pad. plural numbers have the same ending as names. on -ες (and this is an example of the equation of cases that increasingly prevailed in the later κοινὴ), finally, here we come across ὀμνύω vm. ὄμνυμι. We also find wine there. pad. plural numbers on -ες, dat. pad. plural number of consonantal roots of the 3rd declension in -οις (as in Messenian and northern West Greek), e.g. χρημάτοις vm. χρήμασιν. Here we also find the Dorian future, then the already mentioned forms like βόοις instead of βουσίν, γονέοις instead of γονεῦσιν, ἄνδροις instead of ἀνδράσιν, ἀρχόντοις instead of ἄρχουσιν, τεθνακότοις instead of τεθνακόσιν. It is interesting that in the dialect of Phocis and Delphi, which belongs here, the ending of 3 liters is found in the past imperfect and in the strong aorist. plural numbers -σαν along with -ν: for example, along with those used in the Attic dialect συνῆλθον, there is a highly remarkable form, also attested by the LXX and the New Testament, the form ἐλέγοσαν, ἐδεικνύοσαν; then (as by chance in N.Z.) ἠται vm. ἠ, therefore, is the medial conjugation of εἱμί. Like Dorian (Rhodian), Aeolian and Ionian, shortened verbs ending in -αω are used in present tense formations following the pattern of verbs ending in -εω. As in κοινὴ, the past perfect tense takes on present tense conjugation forms, e.g. τετελευτακούσας vm. τετελευτηκυίας etc. Here we find the ending of the present tense in the past perfect participle πεποιηκών vm. ordinary πεποιηκώς. It breaks down into the following private dialects: 1) Boeotian with the pronunciation of αι as e, ει as i, οι as yu, with a closed pronunciation of η, which finally led to the so-called Itacism; 2) Thessalian with Lesbian, of which the latter has, instead of καί ἐγώ, κἀγώ, often used in the popular language. In forms like γεγώνασιν, the former also allows conjugation in the past perfect tense according to the pattern of the present tense. Regarding vowel sounds, it often corresponds to κοινὴ and the current Modern Greek: so, vm. η is written ει or ι (next, itacism), then sometimes the short vowel is replaced by a long one, and the sounds and are mixed with the sounds e. Both have the same use of α + ω and ο + ω, ν-efelkisticon (ἔδωκεν before vowels and at the end of a sentence, ἔδωκε before consonants), Attic declension, full forms of prepositions, meanwhile, in other dialects shortened, truncated forms are often used. Ionian is divided into three varieties: 1) Euboean (with Oropian), 2) Cycladic and 3) Asia Minor. He constantly replaces the Greek α with ε̄. In it γίγνομαι and γιγνώσκω sound γίνομαι and γινώσκω (from the 5th century), sometimes with compensatory extension (γείνομαι). In Asia Minor, thick aspiration was abandoned very early, a phenomenon we will deal with later when considering κοινὴ and - especially - the Greek New Testament language. The Attic dialect was very strongly influenced by the Ionian, as is proven by the fact that in 403 it adopted the alphabet of the latter, but from 450, in turn, it began to influence the Ionian. Attic is characterized by: the use of αἰεί along with ἀεί, until, finally, one ἀεί triumphed; constant use of ν efelkisticon; elimination of σφᾶς, σφίσιν, σφῶν through ἑαυτούς, etc. (since 395); forms of the imperative mood with -τωσαν instead of -ντων (from 300 BC); replacement of γεγράφονται and ἐτετάχατο with descriptive phrases using εἰσίν, ἦσαν (after 410). Solon's language also reveals the influence of epic language. Thumb. Dialekte. S. 373. Schwyzer. Weltsprachen des Altertums, S. 15 Anm. Since Xenophon is the predecessor of κοινὴ, see also Prof. James Hope Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek, vol. I, Edinburgh 3 1908, p. 51; deutsche Ausgabë Einleitung in die Sprache des Neuen Testaments, Heidelberg 191l, S. 45. Since it can also be considered a source for κοινὴ. You might be interested in: