26. Вселенские соборы

The First Ecumenical Council was convened regarding the false teaching of Arius, who claimed that the Son of God is only the first and most perfect creation of God, but not God, and not without beginning, but created in time, and if called God, it is not in essence, but only because He is superior to all creatures in His perfections. A student of the Antiochian school, Arius was one of the most prominent presbyters in Alexandria (rector of the church in Baukalia, the best part of the city) and was distinguished, on the one hand, by his talents and learning, and on the other, by his exorbitant pride. His pride was insulted by the fact that during the election of archbishop in Alexandria, Presbyter Alexander, in contrast to Arius, was distinguished by meekness and humility. Beginning with a condemnation of the sermon delivered by the bishop, he gradually moved on to denying the co-eternity of the Son of God with God the Father and His Divinity. Archbishop Alexander tried to reason with the erring man with meekness, but to no avail. Arius did not submit to the determination of the local council that was in Alexandria, and fled to Asia, where he found accomplices and a strong patron in the person of his schoolmate Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia, who was especially close to the emperor’s court. In addition to this, the intensification of Arian disputes was facilitated by the long-standing rivalry between the schools of Alexandria and Antioch, the passion of many for sophistic disputes and the desire to bring the Christian faith closer to the teachings of philosophical schools of recent times. Emperor Constantine made attempts to reconcile, in his opinion, the warring parties in order to stop the unrest in the Church. But these attempts were not and could not be successful, since the matter concerned the very foundations of faith. Then, on the advice, as they think, of Hosea, especially the Bishop of Cordoba, whom he respected, and on the basis of the commandment of Christ (Matthew 18:17), he decided to convene bishops, if possible, from all Christian countries and regions to establish the true teaching of the faith and Christian decency. At the invitation of Emperor Constantine, 318 bishops gathered in the city of Nicaea. On May 20, 325, the cathedral was inaugurated in one of the halls of the imperial palace, in the presence of the emperor himself. Many of these saints were glorified by the holiness of their lives, the power of miracles, and their suffering for the faith during the last persecutions. Of these, the most remarkable are Saint Nicholas, Archbishop of Myra, James, Bishop of Nisibius, Spyridon of Trimythia, Paphnutius of Upper Thebaid, etc. All of them cheerfully stood up in defense of the Orthodox faith. Some priests and deacons who arrived along with the bishops took part in the conciliar judgments. Among them, Archdeacon Athanasius, later Archbishop of Alexandria, was especially distinguished by his gift of eloquence, knowledge of Holy Scripture and skill in debate. After many conferences, the false teaching of Arius was rejected, and the dogma of the consubstantiality of the Son of God with God the Father was affirmed, and so that all Orthodox Christians could accurately know the true teaching of the faith, it was clearly and intelligibly set forth in the Symbol. This presentation, almost without change, was included in the first seven members of the Creed that we currently use. In addition, the council decided to celebrate Easter on the first Sunday after the spring full moon, gave primacy over other metropolitans to three - Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, and equalized with them not in power, but in honor, the bishop of the Jerusalem Church, allowed priests who married before ordination to keep their wives with them, and gave some other rules (20 in total). The Arian unrest did not end after the First Ecumenical Council. The Arians had a strong patron at court in the person of Constantia, the sister of Emperor Constantine. She convinced her brother to return Arius and some of his accomplices from captivity. Deceived by the ambiguous expressions of Arius, the emperor even ordered him to be annexed to the Church. This annexation was proposed to take place in Alexandria, since Arius came out of the clergy of this Church. But when the Archbishop of Alexandria, Saint Athanasius, refused to accept into the Church a heretic condemned by the Ecumenical Council, it was decided with particular solemnity to introduce him into communion with the Church in Constantinople. The judgment of God befell the wicked man on the very way to the church: struck by a sudden illness, Arius died. But with the death of the heresy leader, Arianism did not stop and even found adherents on the throne itself. Emperors Constantius (337–361) and Valens (364–375), ardent adherents of Arianism, made every effort to make it dominant in the empire. Many of the Orthodox suffered exile and martyrdom. Meanwhile, Arianism had already managed to split into several sects, and among others, the Macedonian heresy emerged from it. During the reign of the Arian Valens, Macedonius was a bishop in Constantinople, but, through the machinations of the Arians themselves, he was deposed from the see. Having quarreled with his like-minded people and had long been hostile to Orthodoxy, Macedonius soon after this came out with his false teaching. The false teaching of Arius already contained the seeds for the development of the false teaching of Macedonius. By denying the deity of the Second Person of the Holy Trinity, the Arians thereby undermined faith in the deity of the Holy Spirit. However, until some time, they restrained themselves in their expressions regarding the Third Hypostasis of the Most Holy Trinity. In the second half of the 4th century, Macedon made a certain conclusion from the Arian heresy in the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, however, with some features contrary to Arianism. Macedonius denied the divine nature of the Holy Spirit and called Him a creature or power, but he recognized this power as equally subordinate to both the Father and the Son. Emperor Theodosius I convened a second Ecumenical Council to end the Arian disputes in general and in particular against the new Macedonian heresy in Constantinople in 381. 150 Orthodox bishops were present at this council. Here were saints famous for their learning and holiness of life: Gregory the Theologian, Gregory of Nyssa, Meletius of Antioch, Amphilochius of Iconium, Cyril of Jerusalem. The fathers of the council unanimously condemned all branches of Arianism and the false teaching of Macedonius and approved the dogma of the equality and consubstantiality of God the Holy Spirit with God the Father and God the Son. At the Council of Constantinople, the Nicene Creed was somewhat supplemented, especially in the 8th clause, in which the doctrine of the Holy Spirit was set out in clear and definite lines. In addition, four more members were added to the Symbol: about the Church, about the sacraments, about the resurrection of the dead and about the afterlife. Thus, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed was compiled, which serves as a guide for the Church for all times. Of the seven rules drawn up at this council regarding church deanery, especially remarkable is the one by which the Archbishop of Constantinople was compared in the priority of honor with the four leading archbishops (patriarchs), with the entire region of Thrace being given to him to govern. His name, out of respect for the fact that he was the archbishop of the capital - New Rome, was placed directly after the Archbishop of Rome, above the archbishops of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. The Third Ecumenical Council was convened in 431 by Emperor Theodosius the Younger in Ephesus, regarding the false teaching of Nestorius 49, who taught that the Most Holy Virgin Mary gave birth to the man Christ, with whom God was united only morally, dwelling in Him as in a church, just as He previously dwelled in Moses and other prophets. Therefore, Nestorius calls the Lord Jesus Christ Himself a God-bearer, and not a God-man, and the Most Holy Virgin, the Mother of Christ, and not the Mother of God. The Council rejected the heresy of Nestorius and determined to confess that the Lord Jesus Christ is perfect God and Man. Therefore, He recognized the Most Holy Virgin Mary, although She gave birth to Him according to humanity, as worthy and righteous to be called Theotokos. Of the other resolutions of the council, the seventh rule is especially noteworthy, which affirms the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed and strictly prohibits making any changes or additions to it 50. One of Nestorius's hottest opponents was Eutyches, an archimandrite in Constantinople. Refuting it, Eutyches was carried away to the opposite extreme and began to teach that in the Lord Jesus Christ human nature was absorbed by divinity, and therefore only one divine nature should be recognized in Him. This false teaching, known under the name of Monophysitism, became more widespread than Nestorianism. In Alexandria at this time the patriarch was Dioscorus, who did not have such a deep theological education as his predecessor Saint Cyril had. He accepted the false teaching of Eutyches under his protection and even persuaded Emperor Theodosius in favor of it, who respected him as the successor to the famous fighters for Orthodoxy - Athanasius and Cyril. Then Flavian, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Pope Leo the Great rose up to defend the true teaching. Insisting on his imaginary Orthodoxy, Dioscorus persuaded the emperor to appoint a council, which, under his chairmanship, was opened in Ephesus in 449. Dioscorus abused the emperor's trust and, without waiting for the disputes to be resolved through reasoning, resorted to violence; Orthodox bishops were expelled from the meeting room. Flavian and other heralds of the true teaching were condemned. The Monophysites were triumphant; but soon circumstances changed in favor of the Orthodox. Emperor Marcian, according to the conviction of Pope Leo the Great and his pious wife Pulcheria, convened the Fourth Ecumenical Council in Chalcedon in 451, which condemned Eutyches and his associates and determined the true teaching of the Church, namely, that our Lord Jesus Christ is true God and true Man: in divinity He is eternally born of the Father, in humanity He is born of the Blessed Virgin and in everything similar us, except for sin; at the incarnation, divinity and humanity were united in Him as a single person, unmerged and unchangeable (against Eutyches), inseparably and inseparably (against Nestorius). In addition, the council compiled 30 rules relating to church deanery; among other things, he finally determined the rights and indicated the districts of the five leading bishops (patriarchs). After the Council of Chalcedon, unrest in the Church did not stop. The main subject of controversy was the writings of three teachers of the Syrian Church, who at one time enjoyed wide and honorable fame, namely Theodore of Mopsuet, Theodoret of Cyrus and Willow of Edessa. They lived in the first half of the 5th century, wrote in defense of the heretic Nestorius, and yet were not condemned by the IV Ecumenical Council. This gave reason for the Monophysites to reproach this council for being partial to Nestorianism, and for the Nestorians to interpret its definition in their favor. Amid these church unrest, the famous Emperor Justinian I ascended the throne. Having tried some private measures to pacify the Church, which turned out to be unsuccessful, in 553 he decided to convene the Fifth Ecumenical Council in Constantinople. The fathers of the council, having examined the writings of the indicated Syrian teachers, condemned one of them, namely Theodore of Mopsuet, of course, since until the end of his life he remained in heretical error, and regarding the other two, the condemnation was limited to those writings that were written by them in the spirit of Nestorianism, while the persons themselves were spared as having died in peace with the Church. And after the fifth Ecumenical Council, Monophysite disputes continued and produced disastrous divisions in the empire. Emperor Heraclius, on the advice of some bishops, decided as a matter of policy to persuade the Orthodox to make some concession to the Monophysites, namely, so that they would recognize that in Jesus Christ, with two natures, there is one action, or, what is the same, one will. One of these advisers, Bishop Cyrus, was elevated to the rank of Patriarch of Alexandria. This concession, at the insistence of the emperor, was joined, although hesitantly, by Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Honorius, Pope of Rome. The adherents of the new teaching were called Monothelites. But both the Orthodox and many of the Monophysites themselves were dissatisfied with this method of unification, invented by politics. The defenders and exponents of the true teaching of the Church were Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, and the Constantinople monk Maximus the Confessor. Meanwhile, church division became more and more dangerous for the state, since it was used for the purposes of conquest by the Mohammedans. Then Emperor Constantine Pogonatus decided to convene the Sixth Ecumenical Council in 680 in Constantinople to pacify the Church. At this council, the teaching of the Monothelites was condemned and it was determined to recognize in Jesus Christ two natures - divine and human, and according to these two natures there are two wills, so, however, that the human will in Christ is not contrary, but submissive to His Divine will. After eleven years, the council again opened meetings in the royal chambers, called trulli, to resolve issues primarily related to church deanery. In this respect, it seemed to complement the fifth and sixth Ecumenical Councils, which is why it is called the fifth and sixth. It is also customary to call it Trullo, because its meetings took place in the hall of the imperial palace, which was so called because of the vaulted ceiling 51. The Council adopted eighty-five apostolic canons, the canons of six Ecumenical Councils, seven local councils, and some of the holy fathers as guidelines for the Church. Subsequently, these rules were supplemented by the rules of the Seventh Ecumenical Council and two more local ones. These rules lie at the basis of church government and are contained in a book called “Nomocanon” in Greek, and “Kormchaya” in Russian. The Seventh Ecumenical Council was held in 787 in the city of Nicaea regarding the heresy of the iconoclasts. The iconoclastic heresy arose 60 years before the council, under Emperor Leo the Isaurian. He won brilliant victories over the Mohammedans and drew up a plan to convert them to Christianity, for which, in his opinion, it was necessary to destroy the veneration of icons. First, he ordered icons to be placed in churches as high as possible so that one could not venerate them, and then he ordered them to be taken out of churches and houses and burned in squares. For a long time, over the gates of the royal palace there was a miraculous image of the Savior. By order of Leo, one warrior climbed the stairs to remove and destroy the icon. The people who were there, in the heat of indignation, overturned the ladder and killed the warrior. Leo executed all those suspected of this murder and after that began, like a fanatic, to persecute the Orthodox. Leo's persecution of holy icons was continued by his son Konstantin Kopronymus and grandson Lev Kozar. Lev Kozar's wife Irina, a zealous admirer of icons, stopped the persecution and convened an Ecumenical Council to pacify the Church. At this council, the iconoclastic heresy was rejected and it was determined to place and place in churches, along with the image of the Precious and Life-Giving Cross, holy icons and to give them reverent worship, raising the mind and heart to the Lord God and the saints who are depicted on them. After the seventh council, iconoclasm arose again and troubled the Church for about 25 years. The veneration of icons was finally restored and approved at the local Council of Constantinople in 842 under Empress Theodora. At this council, in gratitude to the Lord God, who gave the Church victory over the iconoclasts and other heretics, the Feast of Orthodoxy was established, which is celebrated in the Orthodox Church on the first Sunday of Great Lent. There were many local cathedrals. Of these, nine are of particular importance in the Church: Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Laodicea, Sardicia, Carthage, Constantinople I and II. Eastern Churches that separated from the union with the Orthodox Church during the Ecumenical Councils In the definitions and decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, the obedient children of the Church for all times received examples of true teaching and confession of faith. But some of the Christian societies and even private Churches, carried away by the example of their primates, remained in their bewilderment regarding the truths of the faith determined at the councils and are still outside the union with the Universal Church. The most remarkable of them: Armenian Gregorian Church. In the middle of the 5th century, the Armenians suffered disasters from the Persians, and their Catholicos (principal bishop) himself was martyred in captivity in 451. Due to these disasters, neither the Catholicos nor other influential bishops of the Armenian Church could come to the IV Ecumenical Council; Meanwhile, false rumors began to reach the Armenians that the heretic Nestorius was acquitted at this council. Perplexities intensified over time, and finally, at the end of the 5th century, at one Armenian council (491), only the definitions of the first three Ecumenical Councils were recognized as binding and the fourth was deliberately kept silent; and in the 8th century (726) the Armenian bishops had already directly rejected the IV Ecumenical Council. During subsequent relations between the Armenians and the Greeks (especially thanks to the enlightened Armenian bishop of the 12th century Narses, nicknamed the gracious, or blessed), it was clarified that, rejecting this council, they did not want to participate in the Monophysite heresy and agreed with the teaching of the Orthodox Church about the union of two natures in the single person of the God-man Jesus Christ. However, unity between the Churches has not yet occurred. Remaining of the same mind with the Orthodox Church in the main dogmas of faith, the Armenian-Gregorian Church has the following differences related to rituals: 1) To the trisagion song, attributed by the Armenians to only one Second Person of the Holy Trinity, the words “crucified for us” are added. 2) For the sacrament of communion, unleavened bread is used instead of leavened bread and wine not combined with water. 3) In anointing, the so-called sesame oil is used (extracted from the oil plant called sesame). 4) The Feast of the Nativity of Christ is celebrated on January 6, on the same day as the Feast of the Epiphany, and some others. Society of Nestorians, otherwise called Chaldean Christians. They live in the mountains of Kurdistan, in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates and partly in Syria. In the middle of the 16th century, the Nestorians appeared in India on the Malabar coast under the name of the Christians of St. Thomas. At the first time of their apostasy from the Church, the Nestorians were distinguished by their learning, but then their enlightenment began to decline. Currently, the ability to read liturgical books is considered a sign of high education among them, and it is kept only in the clergy, passing along with the title from father to son, as if as an inheritance. Something the Nestorians borrowed from the Jews: rites of purification after touching the dead, celebrating Sunday just as Jews celebrate Saturday. Nestorianism also includes non-veneration of icons. At the end of the last 19th century, part of the Urmian Nestorians (northern Persia), led by Bishop Mar-Jonah, reunited with the Russian Orthodox Church. For the Spiritual enlightenment of Urmia Christians and helping them, a Russian Orthodox mission was opened in Urmia. Jacobites. This is the name of some Christians living in Syria, Mesopotamia and other countries of the East. They adhere to the Monophysite heresy and received their name from one of the Syrian bishops, James Baradeus, who lived in the 6th century. At the head of this society is the patriarch, who necessarily bears the name Ignatius, as the successor of Saint Ignatius the God-Bearer. In worship and church customs they are closer to the Orthodox Church than the Nestorians. Coptic church community. Copts are the indigenous inhabitants of Egypt who adhere to the Monophysite heresy. In the 7th century, out of hatred for the Greek emperors who patronized Orthodoxy, the Copts betrayed them and contributed to the rapid conquest of Egypt by the Mohammedans; but for this they were punished with severe oppression from these latter. The church community of Coptic Christians is headed by a patriarch who resides in Cairo. At their churches, large baths are built, which are filled with water on the day of Epiphany; After consecrating this water, the Copts immerse their children in it, and then immerse themselves. They perform circumcision, but not as a church rite, but more as a folk custom. For them, installation into sacred positions is accomplished not through the laying on of hands, but through the breath. Abyssinian church community. The Abyssinians, like the Copts, adhere to the Monophysite heresy and have many similarities with them in customs, but they have deviated even further from Orthodoxy. They adhere to Jewish food laws and celebrate the Sabbath as well as Sunday. During worship they are allowed to perform sacred dances. Maronites. Their main location is on the slopes and valleys of the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. This is the only sect in the East that adheres to Monothelite errors. Another feature of this sect is its close connection with the Roman Catholic Church and, at present, almost complete dependence on the latter. Recognizing the primacy of the pope and accepting almost all the dogmas of the difference that distinguish Catholicism from Orthodoxy, the Maronites retained worship in their own language, receive communion under both types and have married priests. – A student of the Antioch School, Nestorius was a presbyter in Antioch and was distinguished by his eloquence, for which he was elevated to the chair of the Patriarch of Constantinople, which was shortly before occupied by the famous Antiochian John Chrysostom; but Nestorius was far from being like his great predecessor. He came to his high pulpit with the opinion, borrowed from his teacher Theodore of Mopsuet, that the man Jesus and God the Word are separate persons, and considered it possible only for their external union, or the contact of one with the other. He began to express these heretical thoughts in his sermons. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, and Celestine, Pope of Rome, rebelled against the false teachings of Nestorius, and after some unsuccessful attempts to admonish the heretic, they condemned him at local councils in Rome and Alexandria. Cyril, moreover, compiled and promulgated 12 anathematisms against Nestorius, in which the teaching of the Church about the inextricable union of two natures in the person of the Lord Jesus Christ was clearly and precisely defined. An objection to these anathematisms was written by the famous scientist of that time, Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus, who was at first of one mind with Nestorius. These disputes flared up and became acute: to resolve them, the power of an Ecumenical Council was required. – Along with the error of Nestorius, the Pelagian heresy that appeared in the West was also condemned at the Third Ecumenical Council. Pelagius, a native of Britain, did not accept monasticism, led a strict ascetic life and, falling into spiritual pride, began to deny original sin, belittling the importance of God's grace in the matter of salvation and assigning all the credit to a virtuous life and to man's own strengths. In its further development, Pelagianism led to the denial of the need for atonement and atonement itself. To spread this false teaching, Pelagius arrived in Rome, and then came to Carthage, but here he met a strong opponent in the person of the famous teacher of the Western Church, Blessed Augustine. Having experienced through his own difficult experience the weakness of the will in the fight against passions, Augustine with all his might refuted the false teaching of the proud Briton and revealed in his works the great significance of Divine Grace for doing good and achieving bliss. The condemnation of the heresy of Pelagius was pronounced back in 418 at a local council in Carthage, and was only confirmed by the third Ecumenical Council. – The same name belongs to the sixth Ecumenical Council, which had meetings in the same hall, and was especially adopted by the fifth and sixth. You might be interested in: