About idolatry

Tertullian’s work “On Idolatry” (24 chapters, 203-206) is a continuation of the treatise “On Spectacles” and transfers the thoughts expressed here to the field of art and public life. Tertullian writes that it is necessary to abstain from every position, occupation and craft that has any relation to idolatry, for all this is impermissible and sinful. In private life it is also necessary to avoid everything that has any connection with the pagan cult. If someone makes the excuse that he cannot live without some kind of craft, this does not excuse him, since he needs to find another occupation: you cannot deny with your tongue what you build with your hands, profess faith in one God, making many gods. *The title of the work in Latin is De idololatria. Chapter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Idolatry is the main crime of the human race, the highest sin of the world, the only reason for the Last Judgment. For every other crime can be classified as a special type and is subject to trial under its own name, but in the case of idolatry, all crimes are committed simultaneously. Throw away the definitions, look straight into the essence of the action! An idolater is the same as a murderer. “Who did he kill?” - you ask. The essence of the crime with which we accuse him is that he kills not a stranger, not an enemy, but himself. From what ambush? From the ambush of your delusion. What weapon? An insult to God. How many blows? As many times as idolatry is committed. Anyone who denies that one who serves idols is a murderer also denies that he is condemned to death. One who serves idols should also be recognized as an adulterer and a libertine. For he who serves false gods is certainly an adulterer in regard to the truth, for every lie is adultery. He is just as immersed in debauchery. Indeed, isn’t the one who calls upon unclean spirits to help himself, along with them, guilty of abomination and depravity? After all, Holy Scripture uses precisely the word “debauchery” when it condemns idolatry 1 . I believe that fraud occurs when they either take someone else’s property or do not repay the debt, and fraud committed against a person is a very serious crime. But the idolater commits fraud against God himself, denying Him the honors due to Him and giving them to others, so that with fraud there is an insult. And since both fraud and debauchery with adultery entail death, the idolater cannot escape the charge of murder. After the crimes of idolatry so destructive, so harmful to salvation, the rest of his offenses exist to some extent in isolation. There is also worldly lust in it - for what kind of celebration of idolaters is complete without magnificent decorations and decorations? There is also licentiousness with intoxication, when abundant food is consumed - both for the sake of the womb and for the sake of lust. There is also injustice in idolatry. For is there anything more unjust than not knowing the Father of justice himself? There is also madness in idolatry, since the whole mind in it is immersed in madness. There is also a lie in idolatry, because its whole essence is a lie. So it turns out that all crimes are simultaneously exposed as idolatry, and it itself is exposed in all crimes. But you can approach this matter from the other side. Namely, since all crimes are disgusting to God, and nothing directed against God is possible without the participation of demonic forces and unclean spirits, to whom idols belong, it is undoubtedly that every criminal commits idolatry. After all, he does what the owners of idols tend to do. However, let us dissolve all crimes into their own domains and consider idolatry as such. Enough is this name hostile to God, the fat pasture of sin, which has sprouted so many branches, spread so many shoots, that it should be addressed using the most extensive material possible in order to show how varied the dangers await us in the vast space of idolatry. For it is able to destroy the servants of God in various ways, not only due to their ignorance, but also through its own cunning. Many people believe that idolatry consists only of incense or slaughter and sacrifice, or in obligations undertaken in relation to some churches or priests. This is the same as considering adultery to consist of kisses, hugs and the most carnal intercourse, and murder as only the shedding of blood and the removal of the soul. But how much more broadly does the Lord look at this, defining adultery through lust, if someone looks with lust and thereby inflames his soul 2 . He also considers slander and slander to be murder, as well as anger and neglect of brotherly love. Likewise, John teaches that he who hates his brother is a murderer (1 John 3:15). But the evil intent of the devil would be insignificant and God would be unpretentious in his demand for our obedience, with which He arms us against the tricks of the devil, if only such actions were condemned in us that the pagans had already condemned. How will our justice surpass the justice of the scribes and Pharisees, since the Lord demanded it, if we do not see how much unrighteousness is opposed to Him? And if the source of untruth is idolatry, then first of all we should arm ourselves against all its forces, seeing idolatry not only in its obvious manifestations. Once upon a time there were no idols. Until the creators of these monsters appeared in abundance, there were only churches with empty rooms, traces of which can still be seen today in some ancient sanctuaries. And yet idolatry was practiced, if not in name, then in deeds. After all, today one can indulge in it both outside the church and without an idol. But when the devil introduced into the world the creators of statues, paintings and images of all kinds, it was then that this then new, and subsequently widespread, scourge of the human race received its name from idols. Since then, all art has become the source of idolatry, no matter how it creates its idols. After all, it makes no difference whether they were sculpted by a sculptor, carved by a carver, or woven by an embroiderer, because it makes no difference whether the idol is created from plaster or using paints, from stone or bronze, from silver or thread. Since idolatry occurs without an idol, once the idol is already present, it makes no difference what substance it is made of or what its shape is, so let no one assume that only a consecrated human image should be considered an idol. The word itself must be interpreted here. Είδος in Greek means “picture”, hence the diminutive εἴδωλον, just as we have “picture” from “picture”. Therefore, any picture or picture depicting something should be considered an idol. Idolatry is all service, all pleasing to an idol. Therefore, the creator of any idol is guilty of the same crime, and the guilt of the people serving the idol does not become less if they consecrate for themselves a statue not of a person, but of a bull. God forbids both the creation of an idol and the worship of it. Since production precedes service, the most important thing is that something that is forbidden to be worshiped should not be created. For this reason, namely in order to destroy the basis for idolatry, God's law commands: Thou shalt not make an idol, and immediately after this it says: And also the images of those in heaven, on earth and in the sea (Ex. 20:4), according to which the servants of God were generally prohibited from such arts. Enoch was the first to announce that all the elements and in general everything that inhabits the world, that is, living in heaven, on earth and in the sea, will be directed towards idolatry by demons and the spirits of apostate angels. These forces will try to make sure that instead of God and in defiance of God they surround themselves with service and honor. This is why human delusion reveres anything but the Creator of everything. These images are idols, and the veneration of idols as sacred is idolatry. Whoever commits idolatry must undoubtedly be counted among the creators of this very idol. Therefore, the same Enoch equally threatens those who worship Idols and those who make them. Thus he says: I swear to you, sinners, that sorrow is reserved for you on the day of destruction. I warn you, who serve stones, and who make images of gold and silver, as well as wood, stone and clay, who serve ghosts, demons and spirits of the underworld, and who follow error and not teaching, that you will not find help for yourself in them 4 . And Isaiah says: You are My witnesses whether there is a God besides Me. And then there were no those who sculpt and cut, they were all mad, doing what pleased themselves, what would not help them (44:8-9). And further this whole statement is directed both against the creators of idols and against their admirers. And the final words of Isaiah are: Know that their heart will be dust and earth. and none of them is given the opportunity to free their soul (20). And David says the same about the creators of idols: So it will be with those who do similar things (Ps. 113:16). Should I, a person with a not very good memory, add anything here? There is no need to resort to Holy Scripture. Isn’t the voice of the Holy Spirit enough, and is it worth considering whether the Lord has already cursed the manufacturers of those things, the worshipers whom He condemned and cursed? I will answer in more detail the excuses of such artists, who, if anyone knows such art, should not be allowed into God’s house. To the usually raised objection that I have nothing else to live on, one can answer briefly and sternly: “It turns out that you are living after all!” What do you care about God if you live by your own laws?! And that some dare to refer to Scripture, where the apostle says: Let him remain in the state in which he was (1 Cor. 7:20), then according to this interpretation we should remain in sin. After all, none of us found ourselves without sin, since Christ came to earth for no other purpose than to free us from sins. But they also say about Him that He ordained that, following His example, everyone should live by the labor of their hands (1 Thess. 4:11). If this instruction is extended to any hands, then those thieves who trade in the baths live from their own hands, and robbers do with their hands what gives them the means to live. Likewise, forgers of wills, not with their feet, but with their hands, draw up counterfeit papers, and actors, in general, earn their bread not only with their hands, but with all their limbs. Well, then the church is open to everyone who eats from the labor of their hands, and it is impossible to name a single craft that would not be allowed according to God’s teaching? However, some also object to the prohibition of creating images, citing the fact that Moses in the desert created an image of a snake from bronze 5 . But this is a completely different matter - images that are erected to interpret something hidden and serve not to abolish the law, but to defend their cause. Otherwise, that is, if this is understood as a violation of the law, then why don’t we, along with the Marcionites, accuse the Almighty of inconsistency? They accuse Him of inconsistency because He forbids something in one place of Scripture, and in another prescribes it! But it is not obvious to anyone that this statue of a bronze snake suspended in the air was supposed to symbolize the appearance of the Lord’s Cross, which is to free us from snakes, that is, the angels of the devil, and on which the slain devil, that is, the snake, will be suspended. Perhaps another interpretation of this image will be revealed to those more worthy, but only the apostle claims that this is exactly what happened with the people. It is good that the same God forbade by His law the making of likenesses, and by His extraordinary command He commanded the image of a serpent to be made. If you honor this God, then obey His law not to make likeness. If subsequently an order is revealed to you to make an image, act like Moses and do not make any image, unless God orders you to do so. Even if no law of God forbade us to make idols, if no voice of the Holy Spirit threatened the creators of idols with no less punishment than their admirers, then from our very sacred rites one could still conclude that these crafts are contrary to our faith. How can we renounce the devil and his angels if we create them ourselves? How can we break the connection with these, I won’t say – our cohabitants, but still – creatures, from whose production we live? How can we be hostile to those to whose mercy we owe our own sustenance? Can you renounce with your tongue what you do with your hands? In a word, destroy what has been done in practice? Confess one God, having personally created so many gods? Confess the true God while making false ones? “I make an idol,” someone will say, “but I don’t honor it.” But he does not dare to venerate for no other reason than for the same reason that he should not have done it at all, namely because both are an insult to God. “That is what you venerate, because you are doing with your own hands what other people will venerate.” Moreover, you worship not through any vile incense, but through your own spirit, 6 and it is not the souls of cattle that are sacrificed to this idol, but your own soul. You sacrifice your own mind to this idol, you pour your sweat to it, you ignite your skill in its service. You are more than just a priest of these idols, because it is through you that they have priests, and in your sophistication is their strength. Do you deny that by making an idol you are serving it? But they themselves will not deny it, because to them you bring the most well-fed and gilded sacrifice - your eternal salvation! But here zealous faith, blazing with anger, begins its accusatory speech. She proclaims the following: “So what, it turns out, a Christian can come to church from his idols? From ungodly ministries to the house of God? Extends the hands that created idols to God the Father? He folds his hands for prayer, which he just raised against God outside the doors, and stretches out to the Body of God the very hands that created the bodies of demons?” But this is not enough. Not only do they accept the Body of God from the hands of others in order to desecrate It, but they themselves distribute the desecrated things to others. Manufacturers of idols are already being accepted into the ecclesiastical class. Disgrace! The Jews only once raised their hands against Christ, but these same ones daily torment His Body. O these hands that should be cut off! Let them think if this is not what it says: If your hand causes you to sin, cut it off (Matthew 18:8). What else should be cut off if not the hands that sow temptation in relation to the Body of the Lord?! There are many other types of crafts that, although not related to the making of idols, nevertheless turn out to be guilty of it, since thanks to them they create something without which idols are impossible. For it makes no difference whether you create an idol, decorate it, or build a church, altar, or sanctuary for it, whether you carve a plaque or other decoration for it, or build a whole house. Such works are even more important, for even if the idol itself is not created through them, it is endowed with influence. If the need is so great, there are other activities that can provide food without breaking the commandments, that is, without creating idols. A plasterer is able to repair a roof, re-cover it, whitewash a water tank, hang a cornice, and decorate the walls with any pattern, as long as it doesn’t depict anything. The artist, the stonecutter, the foundry worker, and any carver know their crafts in their entirety and, of course, simpler work is available to them. Wouldn't it be easier for someone who can draw a picture to draw a wall? Does the carver of Mars from linden make a wardrobe? After all, every craft either generates any other, or is at least related to it, so there is no craft that stands apart. There are as many crafts as there are human needs. True, there are differences in remuneration and wages, so the type of craft matters. But a cheaper service is needed more often. How many walls need paintings? How many churches and sanctuaries are needed for idols? On the other hand, how many mansions, residences, bathhouses, and city houses are required! Sandals and shoes have to be gilded every day, but Mercury and Serapis 7 - not every day. Enough for artisans to meet their needs. Yes, the love of luxury and vanity are more reliable than any superstition! Vanity rather than superstition needs cups and plates. The love of luxury requires more wreaths than rituals. But at the same time, while listening to admonitions to turn to crafts that do not concern idols and what is connected with them, we must not lose sight of the fact that many things serve both people and idols, so we should beware lest anything we make be, with our knowledge, used for the benefit of idols. If we allow this, and do not use the usual means against it, then I do not think that we can escape the infection of idolatry, for we will be caught red-handed as knowingly participating in the service of demons or rendering them honors and services. Among the crafts, we would single out some activities that are directly guilty of idolatry. There is nothing to say about astrology. But since in the recent past one astrologer himself called us to an answer, justifying his reluctance to part with his occupation, I will dwell on this in a little more detail. I will not say that the astrologer worships idols, with whose names he paints the sky and to which he attributes all the power of God, so that people no longer consider it necessary to make requests to God, thinking that we are guided by the inexorable will of the stars. I will only say that these idols are apostate angels who entered into relationships with women and also invented these arts, and therefore are cursed by God 8 . Oh, the wisdom of God, reaching to the very earth, evidence of which is even people who have not understood the truth! The astrologers are already being driven out, as are their angels. Rome and all of Italy are forbidden to the astrologers 9 , just as the sky is forbidden to their angels. The same punishment - expulsion - is determined for both teachers and students! But, they will tell us, magicians from the East came to Christ 10. We know the closeness of magic and astrology. This means that the interpreters of the stars were the first to announce the Birth of Christ, and the first to honor Him. In this, I believe, they did Christ a service. So what? Are today's astrologers protected by the faith of those magicians? As if current astrology comes from Christ, as if they observe and predict the stars of Christ from them, and not from the stars of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars and other dead people of the same kind. But the fact is that this science was allowed only up to the Gospel, so that after the appearance of Christ no one had to interpret anyone’s fate according to heaven. And those incense, myrrh and gold that the magicians brought to the cradle of the Lord meant, as it were, the completion of sacred rites and worldly glory, which Christ had to stop. And there is no doubt that by the will of God they had a dream so that they would go back to themselves, but not the same road they came. This should be understood as a sign that they should have left their sect, and not that it was necessary to avoid the persecution of Herod, since he did not pursue them and did not suspect that they had gone along a different road, since he did not know the one along which they came, so by road one must understand the sect and the teaching. That is why the magicians were ordered to proceed from there in a different way. Also, another type of magic, which deals with miracles, was also practiced against Moses 11, God allowed only before the Gospel. Thus, Simon the Magus, who had already converted to the Christian faith, who planned to form a merchant sect and, among the miracles of his craft, trade in the Holy Spirit descending through the laying on of hands, was condemned by the apostles and rejected 12. Another magician, who served under Sergius Paulus, was punished with blindness for opposing the same apostles. I am sure that the same fate would have befallen the astrologers if any of them had encountered the apostles. But since magic, of which astrology is a type, is punished, all its types should also be punished. After the Gospel, one only hears about the conquered sophists, Chaldeans, spell casters, fortune-tellers and magicians. Where is the sage, where is the scribe, where is the seeker of this age? Has not God put to shame the wisdom of this age? (1 Cor. 1:20). You don’t know anything, astrologer, if you don’t know that you should become a Christian. And if I knew, I would also know that there is no point in you being involved in this matter. It itself would reveal its danger to you, just as it announces danger to others with the help of tables 14. You have neither part nor destiny here (Acts 8:21). What does the Kingdom of Heaven care if someone’s finger or someone’s ruler wanders across the sky? One should also ask about school teachers, as well as teachers in other disciplines. There is no doubt that they are also close to idolatry in many ways. First of all, because they need to preach the pagan gods, proclaim their names, origins, myths, and also talk about the decorations appropriate to them. Also, people of these occupations need to observe the rituals and holidays of these gods in order to receive their salary. What teacher would go to the Quinquatras without a picture of the seven idols? 15 Even the first payment of a new student is dedicated by the teacher to the honor and name of Minerva, so that even if he does not dedicate himself to an idol, then at least in words it can be said about him that he eats from something sacrificed to idols and should be avoided as an idolater. What, isn't the desecration so significant in this case? Is a salary dedicated to the honor and name of an idol so much preferable? Just as Minerva belongs to Minervino, so Saturn belongs to Saturnovo, since even slave boys need to celebrate Saturnalia 16. It is also necessary to strictly observe the holiday of Semikholmia 17, do everything necessary for the holiday of the winter solstice and on Caristia 18, and in honor of Flora 19 decorate the school building with wreaths; The flaminists and aediles 20 are officiating, and the school is in festive decorations. The same is done for the birth idol, when the devil's feast is celebrated in front of a large crowd of people. Who would consider all this appropriate for a Christian, except perhaps the one who agrees that this is appropriate for everyone to do, and not just a teacher? We know that it may be objected to us that if it is not proper for the servants of God to teach, then they should not study. How, then, can one obtain the knowledge that a person needs in the sciences, and what is it - how can one generally cultivate feelings and behavior, when education is a necessary auxiliary means for all life? How can we abandon worldly education, without which religious education is impossible? Well, the need for education is also obvious to us, and we believe that in part it should be tolerated and in part avoided. It is fitting for a Christian to learn rather than to teach, since learning is one thing and teaching is another. If a Christian teaches others, then, teaching the appeals to idols interspersed here and there, he will support them, passing them on, confirming them, mentioning them, and giving testimony about them. He will even call idols gods, while the law, we talked about this, prohibits calling someone God and generally taking this name in vain 21 . Thus, from the very beginning of education, the building of the veneration of the devil begins to be erected. It is clear that he who teaches the science of idols is guilty of idolatry. When a Christian studies this, if he already understands what idolatry is, he does not accept it and does not allow it to happen to himself, especially if he has understood it for a long time. Or when he begins to understand, then first let him understand what he learned earlier, namely about God and faith. After this, he will be able to reject false teaching and will be as unharmed as a person who deliberately takes poison from the hands of an ignorant person, but does not drink it. They refer to the fact that it is impossible to learn in any other way. But it is much easier to give up teaching than to give up studying. And it is easier for a Christian student than for a teacher to avoid participation in vile public and private sacred rites. If we list the other crimes, we will first of all discover acquisitiveness, the root of all troubles, for once caught in its snares, many are destroyed in their faith, and in addition, the same apostle twice calls acquisitiveness idolatry 22 . Deception is also in the service of money-grubbing. I'm not even talking about a false oath, since it is not permissible for a Christian to swear in general, and, to be honest, is trading appropriate for a Christian? And if acquisitiveness is driven out, will there still be a reason for acquisitiveness? If there is no reason for acquisition, then there will be no need for trade. However, even if this is a fair trade, having nothing to do with greed or deception, I still believe that the person engaged in this business is guilty of idolatry, since he is in connection with the very soul, with the very spirit of the idol and feeds all the demons at once. Isn’t this the most important thing about idolatry? And it doesn’t matter that the same goods that are used in the service of idols (I’m talking about incense and other imported wonders) also serve people as a medicinal drug, and also serve us as a consolation during funerals. Do you not present yourself as an accomplice of idols when magnificent processions with many priests and incense are arranged for idols regarding all the dangers associated with trade, damage, losses, plans and negotiations? No one is demanding that all trade be banned. The fact is that more serious offenses require increased attention due to the greater danger associated with them, since we must protect ourselves not only from them themselves, but also from the means by which they occur. Let even others do what is prohibited by law, as long as they do not do it with my help. I should not be an accomplice in anything to someone who does something that is unacceptable to me. I must understand this to mean that I must beware lest what is forbidden to me be accomplished through me. And in the case of other, no less serious crimes, I am guided by the same thing. So, if debauchery is forbidden to me, then I will not help others in this regard either - neither in word nor in deed. For since I keep my body away from brothels, I thereby admit that it is impossible for me to be the keeper of such a house or to do anything similar, facilitating others in debauchery. In the same way, the prohibition against killing people indicates to me that the owner of a gladiator school cannot be admitted to the church, although he himself does not do what he teaches others. Here is another example of the same kind. If a supplier of animals for public sacrifice converts to Christianity, should he be allowed to continue doing so? Or, if a Christian suddenly begins to engage in such work, should he be allowed into the church? I believe not, otherwise there will be someone who will find even selling incense excusable. Both sacrifices and incense, you see, are intended for other people. But since before the appearance of idols, idolatry, which was not yet fully defined, was managed by such means, if even now, in the absence of an idol, idolatry is still performed through the burning of incense, then does not the incense merchant provide demons with a more significant service? After all, idolatry is easier to commit without an idol than without the goods of a perfume merchant. Let's ask his own conscience. What facial expression should a Christian incense seller have when he passes through the churches of idols? With what face should he reject and curse the smoking altars, which he personally took care of before? Shouldn't he, being consistent, curse his students, to whom he provides his house with a storage room for classes? Even if he renounces the demon, then let him not be too proud of his loyalty to Christianity, since he did not expel the enemy at all. After all, it was not difficult for him to beg the one he feeds every day to leave. Consequently, no craft, no occupation, no trade that serves to create idols or decorate them can escape the charge of idolatry. Otherwise we would have to interpret idolatry as something other than the worship and service of idols. And we are not very clever in hiding behind the need to get food if we say after accepting faith: “I have nothing to live on.” I will now answer this brief argument in more detail. The point is that he comes out too late. One should have thought first, like a prudent builder who, before starting construction, evaluates his capabilities so that he does not have to endure the shame of leaving the building unfinished. However, the words of the Lord and His example take away your ability to refer to anything. What are you saying? "I'll be poor." However, the Lord calls the poor happy 23. “I won’t have anything to eat.” But the Lord says: Do not think about food (Matthew 6:25). As for clothing, the lily 24 can serve as an example for us. “I need property.” But everything should be sold and distributed to the poor 25. “But it is finally necessary to take care of children and descendants.” However, no one is able to plow with his hand on the plow and at the same time look back (Luke 9:62). “But I belonged to a certain rank.” And to this it is said: No one can serve two masters (Matthew 6:24). If you want to be a disciple of the Lord, take up your cross and follow the Lord 26, that is, be willing to endure hardships and go the entire way of the cross, even if this cross is just your body, which is to some extent similar to the cross 27. For God's sake, you should have left everyone - parents, spouse, children. And you still doubt whether you should give up your craft, trade or other occupation to which you indulge for the sake of your parents or children! We have already been told once that for the sake of the Lord we should abandon our pledges, our crafts, and all our affairs. James and John, called by the Lord, abandoned their father and boat, and Matthew left his place as a tax collector 28 . Even burying one’s own father was too much of a delay for the work of faith! 29 None of those whom the Lord chose said, “I have nothing to live on.” Faith is not afraid of hunger. She knows that starvation, taken for God, should be renounced no more than any other death. Faith already knows that life itself should not be valued, so what can we say about the means of living? Are there many of these? But what is difficult for people is easy for God (cf. Luke 18:27). Let us flatter ourselves with the hope of the meekness and mercy of God, and let us try not only not to allow our needs to come into contact with idolatry in any way, but to avoid its very spirit, as if it brings with it the plague. Moreover, we will do this not only in those matters that have already been mentioned, but also in everything that is considered human prejudices - whether they relate to pagan gods, the dead or kings: since in all this the same spirit of defilement is present - sometimes through the priesthood and priesthood, sometimes through spectacles and similar things, and sometimes through holidays. What can we say about sacred rites and priestly service? We have already devoted an entire essay to spectacles and the pleasures associated with them. This is the place to talk about holidays and other extraordinary solemn services in which we take part, now indulging our craving for pleasure, now yielding to our fear, thereby sinning against faith and teaching, since together with the pagans we take part in matters of idolatry. First of all, I will dwell on whether the servant of God should enter into communication with the pagans in this way - either in relation to the same festive clothing, or luxurious treats, or sharing their joy in some other way. The apostle, who directed us to unanimity, told us regarding our brothers: Rejoice with those who rejoice, and grieve with those who mourn (Rom. 12:15). But light and darkness have nothing in common (cf. 2 Cor. 6:14), life and death, otherwise we are criminals against Scripture, which says: The world will rejoice, but you will mourn (John 16:20). If we rejoice with the world, then no matter how much we have to grieve with it! Let us grieve when the world rejoices, but then, when the world grieves, we will rejoice! Thus, in the next world, Eleazar found peace in Abraham’s bosom, and the rich man, thrown into the fire, atones for his adherence to good and evil through torment. There are days of retribution 32 on which it is customary to give gifts and repay monetary debts. “Well,” you say to yourself, “I’ll get mine today, or I’ll pay what I owe.” But if this custom was established by people on the basis of superstition, then why will you, alien to all their madness, participate in their idolatry services, as if this day was appointed for you? Why don't you pay what you owe another day? Set an example of how you would like to be dealt with. And why should you hide, because by misleading another person, you desecrate your conscience due to the fact that your partner does not know who he is dealing with. If it is known that you are a Christian, then you yourself fall into temptation, because, contrary to the knowledge of the other person, you do not behave like a Christian. If you manage to deceive those around you, you will be condemned as seduced. But in any case, you will be guilty of being ashamed of God. But He says: Whoever is ashamed of Me before men, I will also be ashamed before the Face of My Heavenly Father (Matthew 10:33; Luke 9:26). It is true that many people are of the opinion that leniency should be shown when a Christian does the same thing as pagans, unless they have blasphemed the name of a Christian. But blasphemy, which we should avoid in every possible way, in my opinion, also consists in the fact that one of us gives a pagan a reason for justly condemning our name, because one of us deceived him, acted unfairly towards him, offended him, or did something else worthy of action, in which our name will be deservedly discredited, so that the Lord will be justly angry. In general, if the words: Because of you they will blaspheme My name (Rom. 2:24; Isa. 52:5) are understood in the sense that any blasphemy is meant, then we are all condemned to death when a circus filled to the limit with blasphemous cries undeservedly blasphemes the Christian name. Well, let's give up - and there will be no blasphemy? No, let them blaspheme when we follow the teaching and do not deviate from it, when we are truly approved and not reproached. O blasphemy, approaching the evidence of martyrdom, which, when directed at me, precisely testifies that I am a Christian! Reproach for fidelity to doctrine is a real blessing to the name. The Apostle says: If I wanted to be pleasing to men, I would not be a servant of God (Galatians 1:10). But in another place he orders us to try to please everyone. How pleasing I am to everyone and in everything,” he says (1 Cor. 10:33). Why did people like him so much? Could it be because he celebrated Saturnalia and the Kalends of January with them? 33 Or by your modesty and tolerance? Or with your seriousness, humanity, integrity of character? And when he says: I will do everything with everyone so that everyone can benefit (1 Cor. 9:22), then does he really mean that together with idolaters he will be an idolater? Or together with the pagans - a pagan? Or together with the laity – a layman? The Apostle, saying: For the rest, withdraw from the world (5:10), did not forbid us to communicate with idolaters, adulterers, or other criminals. However, although he admitted that we need to coexist and enter into fellowship with sinners, this does not mean that he let go of the reins of our fellowship with them to the point of allowing us to sin with them. Where there is community life, which the apostle allowed, there is sin, which no one allowed. It is permissible to coexist with pagans, but not to die in sin. Let us coexist with all people and rejoice with them - due to the commonality of our nature, but not the commonality of superstitions! We have one soul, but not one teaching; we jointly own the world, but not delusion. But if we are in no way allowed such intercourse with foreigners, is it equally more wicked to indulge in it with our own countrymen? Who can tolerate or even justify this? The Holy Spirit condemns the Jews for their holidays. My soul hates your Sabbaths, your new moons (numenias) and ceremonies, He says (Isa. 1:14). We, to whom the once beloved Saturdays, new moons and holidays are all the more alien to God, celebrate Saturnalia, Januaria, Bruma and Matronalia! 34 We, like everyone else, give each other gifts for the holiday, take part in the general fun, and go to feasts. How much more faithful are the pagans to their faith, since they have not adopted any Christian holidays! They have not adopted either Sundays or Pentecost from us, although they know them, because they are afraid that they will be mistaken for Christians. We are not afraid that we will be declared pagans. If you think that the flesh should be given relief, then you have not only equal, but much greater opportunities for this. After all, among the pagans every holiday occurs only once a year, but for you every seventh is Sunday. Count the pagan holidays: there are not enough to fill the time of Easter! May your deeds be glorious, says the Lord (Matthew 5:16). Nowadays, if anything is famous, it is our shops and our signs. You are more likely to meet a pagan's house without a lantern and a laurel branch 35 than the house of a Christian. What should be said about this type of idolatry? If honors are given to an idol, then undoubtedly this is idolatry, but if honors are given to a person, then it should be assumed that in this case idolatry occurs for the sake of the person. We can also remember that all idolatry in general is the veneration of people, since it is known that the pagan gods themselves were once people 36. So it makes no difference whether this superstition applies to the dead or to living people. Idolatry is condemned not because the honors are unworthy, but because the service itself belongs to demons. The Lord said: Caesar's things should be given to Caesar. It’s good that He added: And to God - God’s (Matthew 22:21). What does Caesar own? Obviously, what the question was asked then was: should a tax be paid to Caesar? That is why the Lord demanded that He be shown the coin, and asked whose image it was, and when he heard that it was Caesar’s, he said: So give what is Caesar’s to Caesar, and to God what is God’s. By this He wanted to say that the image of Caesar, which is on the coin, should be given to Caesar, and to God - the image of God in man. So give Caesar your money, and give yourself to God. Otherwise, if everything is Caesar’s, then what will belong to God? “But,” you object, “the lantern over the door and the laurel on the doorpost give honor to God.” However, this honor is not even intended for God, but what is worshiped here under the guise of God secretly goes back to the demons. After all, we should know, although perhaps this is unknown to someone due to ignorance of pagan literature, that the Romans worship the ancient gods: Cardea, so called from the hinges (a cardinibus), Forculus - from the gate (a foribus), Limentin - from the threshold (a limine) and Janus himself - from the door (a ianua). And it doesn’t matter that these names are artificial and mean nothing, it doesn’t matter, since in any case they go back to superstitions, demons and every unclean spirit grab hold of them, since the connection with them is sealed by sacred rites. Otherwise, demons would not have their own names at all. And when there is a name, it is a guarantee for the demon. In addition, we had to read that the Greeks revered Apollo Tirean and Antelius 37 - demon gatekeepers. From the very beginning, the Holy Spirit foresaw this and, through his most ancient prophet Enoch, announced that doorways would also be the subject of superstition 38 . Meanwhile, we have to see that other doors are also revered - in the baths. So if there are creatures that are revered in doorways, then these include lanterns and laurel branches. Whatever you do in honor of the door, you do in honor of the idol. Here I will also secure evidence of God's will, since it would be unsafe to pass over in silence what, having been done against one person, should have served as a lesson to all. Namely, I know that one of our brothers, because his slaves decorated the door of his house with garlands on the occasion of suddenly announced public celebrations, was severely punished that same night in a dream sent to him. Meanwhile, he did not even take part in this venture and did not order the door to be decorated, since he was not at home at that time and he learned about what had happened only upon his return. So you see how earnest God is to see that the doctrine is kept among the members of our family. So also with regard to the honors given to kings or emperors, we are told quite clearly, according to the injunction of the apostle, that it is necessary in everything to submit to officials, emperors and authorities 39 . However, one should not go beyond the boundaries of religious doctrine, that is, in no way fall into idolatry. That is why this example was announced with three brothers who, while showing other honors to King Nebuchadnezzar, firmly decided not to show them to his image, arguing that this is idolatry, since it goes beyond the boundaries of honors due to a person and elevates him to divine greatness 40. So Daniel, who otherwise submitted to Darius, remained in his position as long as there was no danger to his creed 41 . And in order to avoid this danger, he was no more afraid of the royal lions than those three brothers were of the royal fire! So let those in whose souls there is no light light lanterns daily, let those who are threatened by hellish flames attach laurels doomed to be burned to their doorposts: here is both evidence of their lack of enlightenment and a foreknowledge of future torment. But you, a Christian, are the light of the world and an evergreen tree (cf. Matt. 5:14; Ps. 1:3). If you have renounced churches, do not turn the door of your house into a church. Moreover, I will say: if you have renounced brothels, do not give your house the appearance of a new den of debauchery. As for the performance of private and public rites, such as putting on a toga, engagement, wedding, name day, then, I believe, it is impossible to discern even any hint of idolatry. First, you should consider the reasons why this or that ritual is performed. It seems to me that in themselves they are innocent, because neither men's clothing, nor a wedding ring, nor a marriage union can be traced back to the honors of any demon. And in general, I don’t see that God condemns any clothing, except women’s clothing on a man, because it is said: For cursed is everyone who puts on women’s clothing (Deut. 22:5). Even by its name, the toga belongs to a man 42 . And God forbids celebrating a wedding no more than giving a name to a newborn. True, all these rituals are accompanied by sacrifices. But they do not call me for a sacrifice, and if so, it is possible for me to fulfill my duty. Oh, if only we were given the power not to see what we are forbidden to do! But since the evil one has so filled the world with idolatry, we are allowed to attend certain ceremonies where we pay our debt not to an idol, but to a man. If I am called to priestly service and sacrifice, I will not go (this is a rite dedicated to the idol itself) and I will not contribute to anything like that, either with advice, or with money, or with anything else. If I am called to a sacrifice and I go to it, I will be an accomplice in idolatry. But if I am connected with the person making the sacrifice for some extraneous reason, I will only be a spectator of the sacrifice. What should slaves, freedmen, loyal to their masters, and servants do when their master, patron, or boss makes a sacrifice? After all, even if he only gives the wine to the one performing the sacrifice, even if he only helps with one word in performing the ritual, he should be considered an accomplice in idolatry. Keeping this rule in mind, we can fulfill our duty in relation to the authorities and superiors, following in this the patriarchs and other ancients who served under the idolatrous kings until the very end of the age of idolatry. Closely related to these doubts is the question of whether a servant of God can occupy the place of some boss endowed with a certain weight and power. Indeed, thanks to the grace given to him, as well as dexterity, he can remain completely uninvolved in any idolatry, just as Joseph and Daniel remained untainted by idolatry even after achieving the highest power, right up to the right to wear purple in Egypt and Babylon 43 . So we admit that it is possible for a person of any, even high position, to perceive the honors due to him only externally and not perform sacrifices, and also not support them with the weight of his power, not promise victims, not distribute responsibilities for the care of churches and not provide them with monetary allowances, not stage spectacles either at his own or at public expense, and not preside over them, not appoint or introduce any solemn celebrations, and also do not take an oath. As for the powers granted to him, let him not judge in criminal cases, nor in cases of insult, but perhaps in property cases, and let him not pronounce judgment either personally or by his orders, not put anyone in chains, not throw anyone into prison, not torture, if possible. We should now consider the question of the honorary decorations and decorations themselves. Every person has clothes both for everyday wear and for special occasions when, for some reason, it is necessary to show respect. Therefore, among the Egyptians and Babylonians, purple robes and gold ornaments around the neck were the same sign of dignity as the present-day praetexts, trabei and palmata, 44 as well as the golden wreaths of the priests in the provinces. However, in the case of the Egyptians and Babylonians, the meaning was different, since in this way honors were given to those who were honored with intimacy with the king, which is why they were called that way - from purple - “purple kings” (purpurati regum), just as we call people “candidates” by their white toga (a toga Candida) 45 . But in any case this attire was not associated with priesthood of any kind or duties in relation to any idols. Otherwise, a man of such holiness and firmness of faith as Daniel would immediately reject the defiled garment, and immediately (and not after a long time) it would be discovered that he does not serve idols and does not worship Bel and the dragon 46. Consequently, this simple purple robe was not a sign of high dignity among the barbarians, but a sign of descent from free parents. And just as Joseph, who was a slave, and Daniel, who changed his position as a result of captivity, in clothing followed the Babylonian and Egyptian custom, which denoted nobility among the barbarians, so in our country a Christian can allow both young men to wear a pretexta, and girls to wear a stola 47. After all, this is a sign of their condition, and not power, clan, and not honor, class, and not superstition. However, in Rome, the purple robe and other insignia of officials, associated with the height of their position, were originally intended by the authorities for idolatry and were tainted by it. In addition to the authorities, idols are also dressed in trabei, pretexts and laticlaves, and fasces are also worn in front of them, 48 and for good reason. After all, demons are the power of this age, and therefore they boast of purple and fasces as a sign that they, too, are power. What good is it to you if you wear finery but do not do the corresponding deeds? No one can consider himself clean while wearing unclean clothes. If you put on a tunic that is defiled in itself, then perhaps it will not be defiled by you, but because of it you will not be able to be clean. As for Joseph and Daniel, know that it is not always necessary to compare old and new, rough and processed, nascent and developed, slave and free. After all, Joseph and Daniel were in the position of slaves, and you are no one’s slave, only Christ alone, who freed you from the captivity of this age, so you must behave as the Lord taught. For the Lord Himself entered the house hesitantly, being clothed with timidity and homely in appearance, because He said: The Son of man has no place to lay his head (Luke 9:58). His clothing was not rich, otherwise He would not have said: Behold, those who wear soft clothing live in royal palaces (Matthew 11:8). He was not remarkable both in face and appearance, as Isaiah 49 testifies to this. If He did not exercise the right of His authority even in relation to His own disciples, whom He, on the contrary, served; if He, knowing of His kingdom, refused to be a king, He thereby showed most fully that His followers must renounce all exaltation and honor, both in respect of dignity and power. After all, to whom, if not the Son of God, did they rightfully belong? How many magnificent fasces should have accompanied Him, what brightness of purple should have covered His shoulders, what purity of gold should have sparkled on His head, if He had not considered that worldly glory was alien to Him and those who follow Him! Therefore, what He did not want. He rejected what he rejected, he cursed, and what he cursed, he took to the retinue of the devil. For He would not have cursed if it had not been alien to Him, and therefore would not have belonged exclusively to the devil, since it did not belong to God. When you have already renounced the devil's pomp, then if you touch anything from it again, know that this is idolatry. Do not also forget that all the authorities of this age are not only alien, but also directly hostile to God, since by their will the executions of God’s servants occur, but because of them the punishment prepared for the wicked is not carried out. Both your background and wealth can be a hindrance when trying to avoid idolatry. There cannot be enough means to avoid it, but if suddenly they are gone, there is always one thing left, by resorting to which you can take a high position not on earth, but in heaven 50. This chapter will look at military service, which is also associated with power and dignity. In this regard, they ask whether a Christian can enter military service and whether it is permissible for even a simple warrior, who does not have to make sacrifices and pronounce sentences, to be accepted into the Christian faith? However, God's oath does not agree with man's, the sign of Christ with the sign of the devil, the army of light with the army of darkness. You cannot, having one soul, commit yourself to two - God and Caesar. If you want to joke, then you can say that Moses wore a rod, and Aaron wore a clasp, that John was girded, 51, and Joshua led the army into battle, and in general all the people of God fought in the war. The question is how this man will fight, that is, I wanted to say, how will he serve during peace, without the sword that the Lord took from him? For even though the soldiers came to John, and they accepted a certain form of piety, and the centurion even believed so, the Lord abolished all subsequent military service, disarming Peter 52. We are not allowed any state in which service will be directed to a cause that is not permissible for us. But since following the divine teaching is threatened not only by deeds, but also by words, for it is said: Behold man and his deeds 53, and: By your words you will be justified (Matthew 12:37), we should remember that in words we should be careful not to fall into idolatry, whether these are words uttered out of habit or out of fear. The law does not at all prohibit calling pagan gods by name: we have to pronounce them in order to be understood. After all, one often has to say “you will find him in the church of Aesculapius”, “I live on the street of Isis”, “he became a priest of Jupiter” and much more of the same kind, since people are given similar names. After all, I do not honor Saturn if I call him by name, just as I do not honor Mark if I call him Mark. True, the Scripture says: Do not remember the names of other gods, let them not be heard from your lips (Ex. 23:13). Thus we are commanded not to call them gods. For even earlier it was said: Do not use the name of your Lord in vain (20:7), that is, do not call an idol God. Consequently, he who worships an idol in God's name falls into idolatry. So if you have to name gods, you should add something else, from which it would follow that you do not consider them gods. Scripture also mentions “gods,” but each time “their gods” or “the gods of the heathen” are added. This is what King David does when he mentions the gods, saying: The gods of the pagans are demons 54. However, all this will be very useful to me in the future. As for the sin of habit, many people say: “Oh my God!” (Mehercule) or “Oh my God!” (Medius Fidius), not knowing that this is an oath by Hercules. What would it mean to swear by those gods whom you have rejected, if not idolatry and hypocrisy regarding the true faith? For who does not honor the one by whom he swears? We talk about fear in the case when someone else obliges you with his god, an oath or in some other way calling him as a witness, and you, in order not to be caught in Christianity, remain silent. But by remaining silent, you confirm the greatness of those whose name you are supposedly associated with. And what difference does it make whether you confirm in your own words that the gods of the pagans are real gods, or just by hearing it and not objecting? Did you yourself swear by the idol or did you remain silent when they swore for you? That is why it is difficult for us to recognize the sophistication of Satan, who, if he cannot get us to utter certain words ourselves, arranges for idolatry to penetrate from the mouths of his people into our ears. Of course, whoever this man was, with an oath he wanted to either bind you to him with ties of friendship, or cement your enmity. If the oath is aimed at enmity, it means that you are called to battle and you should fight. If it is for friendship, it will be much safer if you entrust your obligation to the Lord in order to break your obligation to the one through whom the evil one tried to push you into the veneration of idols and idolatry. Any tolerance of this kind turns into idolatry. You honor those in whose name the obligations you fulfill were sealed. I know one person, may God forgive him, who, when someone said to him in a public argument: “May Jupiter punish you!”, replied: “I wish the same for you!” What, would a pagan who believes in Jupiter to be a god answer differently? Even if this person had not responded with the same abuse, even if no Jupiter had been mentioned in it at all, he would still have confirmed with it that Jupiter is the god with whom he was scolded, and he behaved so unworthily by responding with abuse. What were you offended by when you were scolded by the name of someone you know doesn’t exist? After all, if you lost your temper in response to this, then you thereby confirmed that he exists, and idolatry will be a manifestation of your fear, and to a greater extent if you respond with the same abuse, because by this you will give Jupiter the same honors as the one who prompted you to this. A faithful Christian should laugh in this case, and not lose his temper. Moreover, according to our teaching, you yourself should not curse with the Name of God, but bless with it, in order to overthrow idols, preach God, and fulfill the instructions of our teaching. Likewise, a person initiated into Christianity cannot come to terms with the blessing of the pagan gods. He will always reject the defiling blessing and, transforming it into God's, purify it. Blessing with pagan gods is the same as cursing in the Name of God. If I give alms to someone or do any other good deed, and that person calls upon me the mercy of his gods or the demons who are the patrons of the city, then my offering or deed turns into the veneration of idols, which destroys the grace of the blessing. Why shouldn’t that person know that I acted in the Name of God, so that thereby God would be glorified and the demons would not be honored through what I did for God’s sake? If God knows that I acted for His sake, then He also knows that I did not want to discover that I did it for His sake, so that to some extent I turned His command to the benefit of idols. Many will argue that you should not impose yourself. I believe that one should not renounce oneself. After all, the person who renounces is the one who tries in every possible way to show in any matter that he is a pagan. And any renunciation is, of course, idolatry, just as any idolatry is denial either in words or in deeds. There is another type of idolatry. It is doubly dangerous, since it is committed both in deeds and in words, although some flatter themselves with the hope that in both cases they are not guilty, since no one sees the deed, no one testifies to the word. It is precisely when Christians borrow money from pagans as collateral that they give a receipt with an oath, but they deny what they have sworn. “We don’t even want to know,” they say. “We only know the time when the case will be heard and the place of the hearing, as well as the name of the judge.” But Christ told us not to swear at all 55, we say. “But I just wrote and didn’t say anything; it is the language, not the letter, that hides the danger.” Here I call nature and conscience as witnesses. Nature - because the hand cannot write anything, even with a motionless tongue, that was not dictated by the soul. After all, even when you speak, it is the soul that dictates what arose in itself or was borrowed by it from somewhere. And it’s not worth saying that the receipt was dictated by someone. Here I call conscience as a witness and ask whether it is not the soul that perceives what another person dictates, and the soul, either accompanied by the tongue or without it, transmits it to the hand? The Lord said well about the sin of the soul and conscience: If lust or evil has settled in a person’s heart, it is the same as if he was already a criminal 56 . Consequently, you were aware of what was happening in your heart, since you cannot claim either that you did not know it, or that you did not want it. After all, when you were aware, you knew, and when you knew, again you wanted. So in this case there is both an act and a thought about it. And you cannot defend yourself against a greater sin with a lesser one, saying that your oath was false, because you did not do what you swore. “At least I didn’t renounce God,” you say, “because I didn’t swear.” But how, even if you did not swear, did you still claim to swear if you agreed to such a deal? “What is not said when concluding a written transaction and what the letters are silent about has no force.” – After all, Zechariah, punished by temporary muteness, was able to overcome it by speaking through his soul. With his own hands he dictated a word coming from the depths of his heart; without a tongue he was able to pronounce the name of his son. His speech was heard from the pen, and his hand sounded in writing more clearly and sonorously than any sound 57. How can one wonder whether a person about whom it is known for certain that he spoke spoke! Let us pray to the Lord that we will never find ourselves in a position where we need to make such a deal. If this nevertheless happens, may the Lord reward our brothers with the opportunity to help us, or ourselves with such firmness to overcome the persistence of need. Otherwise, these speech-substituting lines of denial of God will be brought against us on the Day of Judgment, and they will no longer be signed by solicitors, but by angels. Among such rocks and bays, shoals and straits of idolatry, the ship of faith sails under the sail of the Spirit of God. This ship is not in danger if faith is sighted, it is safe if faith is enthusiastic. Those who fell from the ship cannot swim from the depths, those who are thrown from it cannot escape destruction, those who are mired in idolatry cannot overcome the whirlpool. All who are overwhelmed by the flood of idolatry are swallowed up by the underworld (ad inferos). And let no one say: “Who then can protect himself?” You should have just left the world. Isn't it better to leave him than to stay and be an idolater? There is nothing easier than to protect yourself from idolatry if there is fear of it in your soul. Any need is not as terrible as the danger of idolatry. That is why the Holy Spirit loosened our bonds and shackles through the Apostles, so that we could more freely avoid idolatry. This will be our Christian law, and since it is so simple, the more fully we should fulfill it, for through this we will be recognized and tested by the pagans. This law should be offered to those who are approaching faith, and those who enter it should be impressed on the hearts, so that those who approach it will reflect, the faithful will observe it, and the unfaithful will abandon it. It is not so scary if, as if in the second ark, a raven and a kite, a wolf and a dog, and also a snake 58 find themselves in the Church. But it is clear that there should be no idolaters there. No animal can be imagined to be reincarnated as an idolater. And what was not in the ark should not be in the Church. On Idolatry (De Edololatria) 1. Idolatry is the main sin that combines the signs of all crimes. 2. The need for a broad interpretation of idolatry. 3–4. Art is the main source of the spread of idolatry, condemned by Scripture. 5. Refuting all kinds of excuses for artists. 6–7. The very idea of ​​making idols is ungodly. 8. Artists can earn a living by other activities. 9. Astrology and other types of magic are subject to the sin of idolatry. 10. A Christian should not be a school teacher, for this is associated with idolatry. 11–12. Covetousness is one of the causes of idolatry. 13–15. It is necessary, while maintaining friendly relations with the pagans, to avoid performing their rituals. 16. Christians can, as spectators, participate in rituals not related to the veneration of idols. 17. People pleasing to God had previously achieved high positions in pagan states, and, moreover, without idolatry. 18. It is necessary to maintain modesty and avoid honors, for this is what Christ did. 19. Military service is not appropriate for a Christian: it is impossible to serve two masters. 20–22. Oaths and blessings by pagan gods should be avoided. 23. Unworthy tricks of Christians when dealing with pagans in order to avoid accusations of idolatry. 24. Leading by faith with strict renunciation of idolatry is the path of salvation. See Ezek. 23, especially Art. 30 and 49. For the pious Enoch, see Gen. 5.18–24; Jude 14. The Book of Enoch was not originally included in the canon B. 3. (see Women's ubr. I 3 and note to this place). Quote in: Das Buch Henoch, übers, von Α. Dillmann. Leipzig, 1853, S. 72. See Num. 21.9.; Wed John 3, 14; Language I 12; Justin. 1 Apology 60. Pun: Tertullian uses the same word spiritus to mean "incense" and "spirit." About Serapis, see note. 19 to the treatise “To the Gentiles.” See note. 16 to the treatise “On the Testimony of the Soul” See Suetonius. Tiberius 36; Vitellius 14. See Acts. 13.6–11. Sergius Paulus - proconsul of Cyprus, converted by ap. Pavel. Tables, like the ruler mentioned below, are astrologer’s accessories. Quinquatrus (Quinquatrus - the fifth day after the Ides of March) is the holiday of Minerva from March 19 to 23, especially solemnly celebrated in schools as the end of the old and the beginning of the new school year (see Ovid. Fastas III 809–834). The gift given to teachers on Quinquatras was called minerval. An image of seven idols - apparently, six planets and the sun. Saturnalia, accompanied by feasts and gifts, was celebrated from December 17 to 21. During the Saturnalia, slaves exchanged positions with their masters. The festival of Semikholmia, celebrated in December (see Plutarch. Roman Questions 69). On February 22, immediately following the days of remembrance of the dead (February 13–21), the festival of Caristia (or, as it was also called, Cara Cognatio, “kind kinship”) followed, when all the families living in the city exchanged gifts and wishes for well-being. Flora's Day was celebrated on April 28. Flaminica is the wife of a flamen (priest). There were distinguished between the older flamens (Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus) and the younger ones (see also Coelom. 13). Edil was a magistrate in charge of improvement, trade and order in the city. See Ephesus. 5.5; Colossus. 3.5. Error: this refers to the beggar Lazarus (Luke 16:19–21), and not the high priest Eleazar (about his death - Isa. 24:33). Certain days of the Roman calendar on which it was customary to give gifts and repay debts. January calendars – January 1, the day of Janus (hence “January”), the first day of the year. Brums - winter solstice; Matronalia - March 1, the day dedicated to Juno, the women's holiday of the guardians of the family hearth. See Tacitus. Annals XV 71; Pliny St. XVI 30; Lucan. Pharsalia II 354–356; Juvenal. Satires VI 51; 79; 227; XII 91. Apollo the Door (Greek θυραΐος), Antelius (ἀντήλιος) - “standing in front of the house,” i.e. the door demon. See above, ch. 4 and approx. 4. See Rom. 13.1–7; 1 Peter 2.13–17. Inaccurate retelling of the episode - see Dan. 3.8–23. Toga virilis, "man's toga". See Gen. 41.43–44; Dan. 5.29. Pretexta is a toga with a purple border, worn by officials, priests and minors (under 17 years old) of the free classes. Trabea is a ceremonial white cloak with purple stripes (in the era of the empire - entirely purple), palmata is a luxurious toga embroidered with a palm-shaped pattern. A candidate seeking election to public office wore a white toga. Stola is a long, spacious women's dress. Laticlava is a toga with a wide purple border. Fasces are bundles of rods with a hatchet embedded in them, worn by the bodyguards (lictors) of consuls, praetors and other senior officials (see Livy XXIV 9.1; Gellius XII 3:1). Obviously, this means martyrdom. Rod (virga) - an allusion to the vine rod (vitis) of the centurion; clasp (fibula) – on a military cloak; about the belt of John the Baptist, see Matt. 3.4. See Luke. 3.14; Mark. 15.39; John 18.11. Probably a paraphrase of Rev. 22.12 (Resch. Nachträge 25 no. 61). Probably a paraphrase of Ps. 113.12. Probably a paraphrase of Matt. 5.28 (Resch § 12 no. 73). You might be interested in: