Школа как преддверие церкви

Note on the direction and methods of the initial education of the people in Russia 96 Literacy and, in general, the initial education of the people can be useful or harmful, depending on the nature of the education itself and the circumstances in which the class being taught finds itself. The beneficial side of education is obvious and recognized by everyone. People usually think that it corrects and develops concepts of religion and morality, facilitates and expands private activity, softens morals, brings classes together, opens the way to extraordinary talents, often lost and buried in ignorance, makes it possible to understand the laws, helps eliminate the abuses of legal proceedings, prepares the development of general state justice, expands the needs of life, accelerates the circulation of capital, etc., etc. But what if the concepts that people acquire through literacy are untrue or harmful? What if faith, instead of its affirmation and development, encounters only confusion and hesitation? If the morality of the higher classes is worse than the people's and, therefore, greater closeness with them will weaken good morals and habits, instead of enlightening and enlightening them? If, leaving the previous circle of concepts, the commoner does not find another closed, complete and satisfactory circle, but encounters a shift in knowledge, without support for the mind, without strengthening for the soul? What if the previous state of so-called ignorance was only a state of illiteracy? What if, perhaps, the people already had and stored in their oral and ordinary traditions all the roots of the concepts necessary for the correct and healthy development of the spirit? If his mistakes against morality were not so much the consequence of false opinions as the consequence of human weakness, conscious, however, of its own lawlessness - a weakness that usually only increases through literacy? If greater knowledge of laws does not increase the sense of legality? If, based on the worst morality, it produces one desire - to seek out the literalness of forms and use knowledge of the law only for the safest evasion of it? If the literature of the state, or part of it, available to the people, presents them with food for the mind that is useless, without presenting it as necessary, and takes their curiosity from the sphere of the close and moral into the sphere of the alien, mixed, unnecessary and, if not directly immoral, then destroying morality with its coldness towards it, its carelessness about the essential, magnetically communicated to the mind of simple-minded people, gullible, always inclined to imitation, always ready to believe the first speaking, and especially speaking in a book, always close to self-doubt, always dissatisfied with any constraint, dissatisfied with the advice of prudence, always inclined to accept the lessons of the past as unique and hope for everything from the future, which, in their opinion, is only a distant fulfillment of their own desires? It goes without saying that the consequences of this order of things can be disastrous. Visible softening of morals will not replace the depravity of morality, external improvements will not replace the decline of the inner, the pleasure of sensuality - mental suffering, inevitable with debauchery, with the loss of personal dignity and mutual trust, with coldness towards one's neighbor, with prudence instead of conscience, with self-interest, with deception, with greed, with the ferment of unleashed passions, with the pursuit of an impossible dream, constantly changing shape. and in its essence always comes down to one sensual pleasure. What should a well-intentioned person do in this case? What should he desire, what should he promote? The choice between ignorance and depravity is difficult. However, even if it were possible for a private conviction to decide on the choice of one of these two evils, then, in any case, the fulfillment of his thought would be impossible. Having chosen ignorance, we forget that it cannot remain in the same degree, but certainly entails its own increase and, with some intensification, reaches the same depravity that we wanted to avoid. In addition, literacy and elements of primitive enlightenment are already so widespread in our time that it is impossible to completely evade their influence and, therefore, to counteract them would mean allowing their distribution to be lawless, smuggled, without allowing for a legal and although somewhat healing one. The adherents of primitive education justify the evil it produces by the possibility of future redeeming improvement; adherents of ignorance do not have this consolation either. A look at Russia especially convinces us of the truth that the ignorance of the lower class does not save it from depravity. Whatever our opinion about the previous education of our people, whether we assume it in an incomprehensibly high development, as some people think, or even at the very level at which it is now - for we have no right to assume a lower degree - but in any case we will have to admit that intellectual property did not save the people from moral decline. As proof, let us note the gradually and clearly cooling feeling for faith, the long-spread disrespect for the clergy, the ever-increasing passion for wine, especially in cities where there is more enlightenment - while for three hundred years wine was not only not a necessary need of the people, but was even completely unknown in Russia; then - shameful diseases of depravity, constantly distorting the people more and more; then - weakening of family structures, ease of breaking an oath, etc., etc. But perhaps they will say that the reason for the decline of popular morality lies not directly in its ignorance, but rather in the depravity of the higher classes more or less related to it. In any case, however, ignorance was not a defense for the people, and one cannot help but admit that, comparing their present state with the past, considering together only the above-mentioned features of their decline, one is afraid for the future. For it is threatened with distortion from all sides: physical, moral, religious, social and everything that follows - if the increase of evil does not stop. Of course, the falsity of the enlightenment of the upper class and the falsity of the relationship of this enlightenment to the people were one of the main reasons for its decline. But on the other hand, we must agree that the methods of the initial education of the people could and can at least somewhat contribute to its improvement. Let's consider these methods. Literacy, taken separately, separately from the development of known positive truths, separately from any specific direction, it is unclear why it could be useful and desirable. Connecting the concepts of the people with current literature, it will especially bring them closer to the works of so-called easy reading - reading that is pleasant, aimless, at least useless, and therefore precisely more akin to uneducated minds, even in the case when the literature of the state was rich in works of a different kind, especially compiled for the people, applied to their concepts and needs, consistent with their fundamental convictions. But current literature, conveying to the lower class the concepts that dominate the general trend of minds, insensitively puts his way of thinking in conflict with the concepts of faith, from which he has so far drawn the entire, so to speak, organization of his beliefs, and this internal analysis, of course, cannot be a means of improving it. In order for literacy, taken separately, to be useful for the people, it is necessary that first the character of literature in general and the dominant way of thinking of the upper classes that produce literature in our country change. But this event must originate in the universities and, so to speak, break through the whole mass of real enlightenment before it reaches the people. Technical information, in addition to the general result of improving state industries, also has the undeniable benefit that the taught class is given the opportunity to improve their physical well-being. But here, too, one sad remark meets us, namely, that almost all of our artisans are subject to depravity, that the more profitable the craft, the more depravity, the stronger and more developed the natural talent, the more it is surrounded by weakness. From this observation, it seems, one cannot help but conclude that even technical education loses its usefulness when it is not combined with the structure of other springs that purify and preserve morality. About other sciences usually taught in public schools, such as the first principles of history, geography, arithmetic, one can say almost the same as about technical information, except that they have less influence on improving physical well-being. But they can also be useful, or useless, or even harmful, depending on the moral direction of the person who acquired them. The population of city taverns and no less depraved places of judicial scribes and clerks for the most part consists of the literate and learned class of the common people. What kind of enlightenment remains for the people? What remains is the knowledge of faith. At first glance, it seems that the study of the dogmas of faith 97 does not have any of the disadvantages of other educations and, on the contrary, can serve as a correction for their shortcomings. But upon closer examination, one cannot but agree that this assumption also has its limitations if we talk about the method of teaching that is now used in our initial schools. Of course, knowledge of religion in itself cannot be harmful, but in some circumstances it seems that it could be even more useful. I will try to develop this idea. Faith is not only knowledge. It is a belief associated with life, giving a special color, a special structure to all other thoughts and concepts and determining a person’s actions as much by its direct force as by its influence on extraneous thoughts, concepts, desires and feelings, which often have no visible contact with it. But in its relation to dogma, faith has something in common with the feeling of grace: not a single philosophical definition of beauty can convey the concept of it in the fullness and strength, or even in the correctness in which one view of an elegant work conveys it. Thus, faith is conveyed more by an example of life and will than by a word, more by a word of application than by a word of explanation - and if it is a question of dogma, then, of course, by its simpler presentation than by scientific proof. In former times, when there was undoubtedly more faith, there was incomparably less exposition of dogma. Their nationwide teaching is a very recent innovation, 98 to which the Protestant states set the first example. But in Protestant states, faith, devoid of its mysterious side, lies entirely in the rational concept of dogmas. There it is one of the sciences based on the development of pure reason and daily observation, there faith acts on conviction on a par with the calculation of probabilities, and therefore not only does not contradict the real, logical-material development of enlightenment, but, on the contrary, finds in it its direct complement and confirmation. That is, perhaps, why we notice the special prosperity of elementary schools in Protestant states, because literacy there does not spoil, but corrects the morality of the lower class, for it does not destroy in it the sense of religion, which has nothing mysterious and exceeds simple ordinary reason. With us, on the contrary, the main strength of faith lies not in the calculated selection of what is most beneficial for life, but in conviction, which lies outside the ordinary logical process. Therefore, although in its essence it does not contradict the true development of reason, it cannot be derived from it alone; when it appears solely in the form of knowledge or dogma, it loses the best part of its power. Perhaps, even (if we choose extremes) for an Orthodox Christian, familiar only with those dogmas that cannot but be known to him even outside of school, it would be more useful to know that he does not know his faith than to think that he has studied it sufficiently. Moreover, we must not forget that unbelief, which fortunately has hitherto spread among us only in the upper classes, did not arise from ignorance of dogmas, but ignorance or oblivion of them was already a consequence of unbelief. The reasons for the latter should be sought not in false concepts about dogmas, but in the false development of thoughts surrounding faith, namely in the false formation of concepts belonging to philosophy, and especially its logical part. Delving into the history of European beliefs, it seems clear that neither the jokes of Voltaire, 99 despite all his wit, nor the abuses of the Western clergy, nor the ferment of political and civil interests could have spread the almost universal decline of faith in the past century, if the century had not been prepared for that materiality of its logical concepts. For, not recognizing anything in knowledge except sensory reflections, could the human mind allow spirituality in the concepts of faith? German philosophies, having destroyed the material view of the cognitive ability, also destroyed the material concepts of spiritual objects in the sciences. But in turn, they alienated man from faith by the one-sidedness of their dialectical development and their false criticism of the mind 100, which recognizes logical reason as the supreme judge of truth. Another criticism of the cognitive ability, perhaps, can restore the true, healthy view of the mind on faith, but it is still impossible not to admit that the general structure of the European mind contradicts the true sense of faith, and therefore one cannot help but try to combine all possible means to maintain what is most essential for man and the people. Therefore, I think that the dogmatic teaching of religion, which makes faith only one of the sciences, could be more usefully replaced by another way of transmitting religious truths. Our divine service contains a complete and detailed presentation not only of those dogmas that are taught in schools, but even of almost all questions that can generally disturb the curiosity of an enlightened mind. Consequently, if our people, when going to church, understood the service, then they would not need the teaching of the catechism; on the contrary, they would know incomparably more than can be learned from the catechism, and would recognize every truth of the faith not by memory, but by prayer, enlightening both the mind and the heart. But for this our people lack one thing: knowledge of the Slovenian language. By an unusually happy coincidence, the Slovenian language has this advantage over Russian, over Latin, over Greek and over all possible languages ​​that have an alphabet, that it does not contain a single harmful book, not a single useless one that cannot strengthen faith, purify the morality of the people, strengthen the ties of their family, social and state relations. Therefore, I think that studying it instead of the refinements of the catechism and Russian literature could serve as one of the strongest counteractions to what can be harmful to the people in the sciences, taken separately from religion. If the study of the catechism cannot be completely postponed, if it is also impossible to teach it in an abbreviated form, leaving it in its present form only for gymnasiums, and for public schools releasing all the philosophizing, divisions, dialectical conclusions and logical definitions - if this is impossible, I say, then it seems that it would at least be possible not to insist on these refinements in the teaching, paying the main attention to the few essential things. The study of Russian literature is also harmless; it seems that it can be postponed until the gymnasium, because for the reasons given, it is unlikely to bring much benefit in schools. At the very least, it would be good to limit ourselves to grammar alone, and then only in a very brief presentation, solely from a practical point of view. For this purpose, it seems that the “Russian Grammar”, published for public schools by special order of Catherine the Second 101, can serve better than other manuals. The briefest rules of spelling can be added to it, but I do not think that it would be useful to add to it the metaphysics of syntax. Slovenian literacy, by the very peculiarity of its letters, could arouse the desire to read spiritual books rather than civil ones, useful rather than useless, and yet it is sufficient for teaching in schools some technical information, some part of geography, history, arithmetic, geometry adapted to popular concepts, and even some of the most necessary laws, especially those pertaining to the class being taught. It goes without saying that the study of the Slovenian language should be combined with an oral interpretation of prayers, the New Testament, the Psalter, and possibly a brief explanation of the liturgy. For it is not ignorance of the faith that is desirable for the people; on the contrary, it is only desirable that the method of recognition develop in him a feeling together with a concept. The school should not be a substitute, but a necessary threshold of the Church. Thus, other sciences, relying on a sense of faith, could leave a more useful trace. But the very method of teaching them must also be consistent with the main goal of teaching. Science acts on a person through two forces: the sum of the concepts it contains and the way they are communicated. The method of acquiring information develops certain individual abilities and imparts certain habits, sometimes strengthening memory, sometimes stimulating intelligence, sometimes wit, sometimes especially mathematical or mechanical sense, etc., etc. Therefore, when compiling educational books and when teaching science itself, attention should be paid not so much to the information being conveyed, but to the influence of the teaching method itself. They usually think that the only tool for acquiring all kinds of information is literacy, and therefore they especially try to arouse in students the desire to read in general. Considering the above, I think the opposite. In elementary schools, it seems, it would be more useful to provide as much information as possible about necessary subjects with as little reading as possible. For the people, moving directly from schools to activity, in a developed desire for reading in general will not find a means to education, but only a means to subjugate their concepts to the lowest part of literature. In gymnasiums the attitude is the opposite: there the desire to read in general can be even more useful than information itself, because it develops the mind more and better prepares it for university studies, where again the love of unlimited reading must be limited by the love of studying one subject. What has been said, it seems, could be applied in the following way to teaching methods in schools. History consists of two parts: chronology and narrative. The first requires memory, so to speak, mechanical; the second is also memory, but enlivened by imagination, consideration and, to some extent, sympathy. Therefore, chronology, it seems, could be conveniently studied using the Yazvinsky method 102, if only the teacher limits himself to the most important events, but the narration of these most important events should occur orally, with detail brought to the point of anecdotal entertainment - relating, of course, primarily to sacred and Russian history. For such teaching, it would be good to have special books in which what is needed is skillfully selected and where what is assigned to the student is distinguished from what is assigned to the teacher in different fonts. But for the lack of such books, real books can also serve, where in the margins can be seen what is to be studied, what is to be told, and what is to be published. I think for this purpose it would be especially useful to publish history in pictures for public schools, where each significant event, each special period of time would have its own image, where each century would have its own color, like states on geographical maps, and where under each image contemporary inventions in the sciences, arts, social life, crafts, etc. would be drawn. An example of the latter can be found in some French publications. Thus, the chain of events and the history of enlightenment, being mutually connected, would mutually explain each other, and the sameness of colors in simultaneous events could, it seems, be successfully replaced even for chronology by the Yazvinsky method, which, without a doubt, has a lot of usefulness as a means of helping memory, but it also has a harmful side for the development of the mind: the meaninglessness of the memorization process itself. Conventional methods of teaching geography also have their disadvantages. They complicate memory, convey for the most part only names without sufficiently connecting concepts with them, communicate less views than words, which their very multitude does not allow to be sufficiently consolidated in the memory, and therefore after a short time they are either completely forgotten or confused in the mind and for the most part remain fruitless. It seems that another method could alleviate these inconveniences, turning book learning into drawing. I imagine a black globe and several black boards along which white lines are drawn in the form of degrees, dividing the globe and boards into squares. On these boards, students could chalk the boundaries of states from maps, guided by the position of the degrees, draw rivers, canals and, where necessary, entire systems of water communications, in relation to them, designate the places of cities and thus involuntarily associate with the names of places the idea of ​​​​their position, climate, mutual distance, means of communication, etc., etc. This activity would be more pleasant for the student, and faster for learning, and stronger for memory, and easier for the teacher, and more useful for further gymnasium acquisition of information, based not on the sound of words, but on a plastic view of the earth. The time gained in this way could be used for other subjects, since students sometimes stay at school for four years or more. So, if a special book could be compiled for them from the Code of Laws 103, then, I think, it would not be useless for them (without studying legal proceedings at all, so as not to get into litigation) to learn only exclusively their rights and obligations. Another subject, it seems, would be no less useful, namely, the teaching of some general principles of political economy. This also requires a special essay, which, however, must be compiled with extraordinary care. For here every thought that is paradoxical or even doubtful can have an apparently harmful effect. In addition, the essay should be written briefly, understandably for a child, telling but not proving, offering examples for each thought, without touching on unnecessary subtleties and without touching on government savings. Thus, the entire work, contained in a small number of pages, could set forth the general principles of value, the laws of price changes, the division of labor, the power of capital, the essence and importance of credit, etc., etc., and always constantly bearing in mind that truth that serves as the basis for all practical applications of political economy, i.e. the mainspring of wealth is credit, and the mainspring of credit is morality, and that the source of everything is labor. The results of what has been said boil down to this: – that the direction of public education should strive to develop a sense of faith and morality over knowledge; – that the best means to this goal is the study of the Slovenian language, which makes it possible for church services to act directly on the development and strengthening of popular concepts; - that teaching methods in schools must be consistent with the very purpose of initial education; - that as a result of this change, the method should tend towards the fastest communication of the greatest possible information about necessary objects with the least possible bookishness and towards the combination of practical truths with moral ones. However, the question of the benefits of the proposed changes, considered separately, does not yet coincide with the question of the possibility of their introduction; and if their introduction is possible, then to what extent and in what gradual manner, and does it not contradict other important relations? Only the overall progress of the state machine can determine the required movement of individual wheels. Having outlined my thoughts on the initial education of the people, I present them with full confidence to Your Excellency 104 as a frank confession of my convictions on this subject. Where they contradicted generally accepted concepts, I was not so much concerned about the full expression of my thoughts as especially about expressing this contradiction; That’s why, perhaps, my opinion does not always appear in the real world, just as a portrait expressing only distinctive features is a caricature, but I considered it my duty most of all to indicate the distinctiveness of my view, so that you could judge it more clearly and more easily determine for me the boundaries that I should not cross in application. For, I think that no matter how strong the conviction of a private person and no matter how insignificant the place entrusted to him by the government, it would be dishonest to use it to act contrary to the views of his high trustee. However, I rely on your Excellency’s insight in the matter of education and on your leniency in the matter of judgment. On the need for teaching the Church Slavonic language in district schools 105 The funds that are used for the establishment and maintenance of district schools are significant if you consider everything that it costs to set up schools at a time, together with the annual sums allocated for their maintenance, for salaries of officials, etc. But, however, the most accurate calculations of these funds in numbers will always remain incomparably lower than reality itself. For, not to mention other springs, the official rights and advantages assigned to teachers alone are so great that without them it is unlikely that a double or even triple salary could provide the school with the same people for the same purpose. Moreover, the rights assigned to students who have completed the course of study, the entire higher structure of constant supervision over correct teaching, concern for the compilation of the best textbooks, etc. - in a word, all these, so to speak, weightless forces, much more than all financial resources, should increase the importance of district schools and contribute to the spread of education among the population of our cities. However, these generous funds used by the government for the free dissemination of education, unfortunately, do not everywhere bear the fruits that should be expected from them, especially in cities where the morals of antiquity have not yet been destroyed. For there, for the most part, out of 10,000 inhabitants, barely 50 boys attend the district school, and then almost exclusively one lower class, so that usually only two or three students from the entire school complete the course in the 3rd grade, and, therefore, we can say that actually for these two or three boys, sums of money, and the official rights of teachers, and the rights of students, and concerns about drawing up the best manuals and etc. Meanwhile, if we pay attention to the further fate of these two or three boys, for whose education so many sacrifices were made and so much work was undertaken, we will see that they usually enter the service of some tax farmer 106 or are assigned as clerks to some court and there they share the lifestyle, fate and morals of their comrades, but almost certainly never remain in trading occupations. However, from the fact that our urban population does not study much at the district school, it would still be unfair to conclude that our merchant class or, in general, that the Russian people, who have still preserved ancient Orthodox morals and customs, harbor any hostile feeling against mental education in general. On the contrary, thousands of examples clearly prove that the Russian person not only greatly respects education where he sees undoubted benefits from it, but often even where its outer brilliance alone blinds his eyes. In general, he is afraid of this deceptive side of education, and as long as he clings to antiquity, he seeks only such enlightenment, which he could be sure that it was really based on his fundamental convictions of faith and age-old customs of morality, and which in its development does not weaken, but even more strengthens these religious and moral convictions and customs. True, it often happens that while the district school, with its bright rooms and varnished floors, with its educated officials-teachers, with its free teaching, with its improved methods, stands almost empty in the middle of the city, a Russian merchant, passing by this brilliant school, which offers education for free, takes his son to a semi-literate sexton 107, who teaches him for money and, moreover, usually using the most difficult method. However, this does not happen because the father is afraid of education for his son, but only because he wishes him such an education that would not only be imbued with the spirit of his convictions, but also in its very form would bear evidence of his spirit. Of course, comparing the teaching of the most literate sexton with the teaching of even the most poorly organized school, for the most short-sighted father of the family, the preponderance of all advantages will undoubtedly be on the side of the school, both in relation to learning and in relation to the supervision of children. Only one, apparently most unimportant, circumstance will constitute an exception and for the father’s heart, without any hesitation, he will decide the choice between the school and the sexton - in favor of the sexton: this circumstance is that in the school, with all the knowledge in the sciences (not unprofitable for life), with all the catechetical study of the Law of God (in a volume quite rare for commoners), the boy will not receive either the habit, or, therefore, the desire to read church books; whereas, although he will not get any knowledge from the sexton, he will get precisely this habit of reading church books, and with it the love of church services. Therefore, one boy, leaving school, although he knows a lot, usually soon forgets everything he learned; if he takes up reading, then only reading translated novels; Especially quickly, what is most important is erased from his memory: his knowledge of the Law of God, which is not supported either by reading Divine books or by the habit of studying church services. Meanwhile, the other boy, having not received actual knowledge in his studies, nevertheless received the means and need for the living acquisition of precisely those knowledge that is most important for a person and which he acquires more and more every day, delving into the high meaning of church services. For one, the door of enlightenment closed along with the door of his school. For another, on the contrary, only at the end of his studies did the door to a higher school - the Church - open. This difference between the two fruits of the two methods of teaching is especially sharp and, I will even say, especially scary, is revealed where the urban population is mixed of Orthodox and schismatics. In such cities, the more Orthodox Christians acquire secular education, the weaker they become, unfortunately, in church education, and the more advantages schismatics receive over them in all mental and moral conflicts. Therefore, in such a moral order, or, more correctly, in such a moral disorder of things, an Orthodox Christian either becomes completely indifferent to questions of faith, puts profit and personal passion as the only spring of his actions, is ready to take an oath of truth and lies several times a day without the slightest remorse of conscience, or deviates into schism - openly or secretly. Of course, it’s not those who are deviating into schism who studied in colleges. But since they, being the most educated of the Orthodox inhabitants, do not bring any support to the Orthodox beliefs of their fellow citizens, the pressure of schismatic interpretations already acts more freely and unhindered. It does not follow from this, however, that education in the sciences is contrary to church education. May God save us from such misconception! Truth cannot resist truth. But there may be some shortcoming in the way of teaching scientific truths that hinders the action of religious education. Not from dogmatic teaching, not from mental considerations, as among the Protestant peoples - with us, religious education can only come from church education. Therefore, the habit of reading church books and understanding church services is the only means of acquiring this education. Knowledge of the catechism is, of course, the precious crown of all concepts gleaned by a Christian from attention to church prayers and from reading the Holy Scriptures, but apart from reading the Holy Scriptures and from listening to church services, school knowledge of the catechism is at least useless. All human knowledge, in its totality, constitutes one common organism, one, so to speak, body of the human mind. The dominant part of this body, the head of this organism, lies, without a doubt, in religious and moral convictions. The system of catechism puts the crown on them. But a catechism without the Church is like a crown without a head and a system without content. For the whole essence of religious knowledge lies not in dogma, not in symbol, but in living sympathy with the spiritual life of the Church. Therefore, in order for district schools to fully achieve their goal, it would be useful, it seems, especially in some areas, for more of a church element to enter into their structure, and exactly as much as is needed so that students can easily read church books and understand at least somewhat the structure of Slavic speech. This apparently insignificant, very easy to implement, barely noticeable in form, but essentially very important addition to the structure of district schools, perhaps would be unnecessary in some areas, but in others, on the contrary, it is, so to speak, asked for, required by the entire nature of the relationship of the urban population to the school. And yet it can be carried out without any re-education and changes, but only in such a way that the position of teacher of the Russian language is allowed to be filled not by secular teachers, but by priests, and precisely in those cities where this turns out to be necessary and possible, moreover, placing on these priests the responsibility of teaching children, in addition to Russian grammar, also reading Church Slavonic books, with an explanation of especially incomprehensible words and difficult phrases. But since these positions of priests-teachers of the Russian language should not exceed the rights of those of priests-teachers of the law, but, on the contrary, should be equal to them in everything, then they should receive the same salary - therefore, the surplus salary that remains from the amount assigned to the teacher of Russian grammar should, it seems, be used to purchase some Church Slavonic books necessary for the students to read. Meanwhile, in addition to the main reason stated above, such a change in the appointment of a Russian teacher could sometimes have another (very important) benefit, namely, that if there is difficulty in choosing a worthy teacher, in addition to ordinary candidates, the right of choice would also extend to all the priests of the city. Perv. publ.: MüIIerE. English Intellect in europäischer Krise. Ivan V Kireevsky (1806–1856). Cologne; Graz, 1966, pp. 485–496. Publ. by: Kireevsky I.V. Criticism and Aesthetics. 2nd ed. M., 1998. pp. 417–426. In 1839, I.V. Kireevsky was elected honorary superintendent of the Belevsky district school and held this position until his death. District schools were named after their location (in district towns). District schools were considered primary educational institutions of the 2nd level (after parish schools) and were intended to educate bourgeois and merchant children (for three years). The Law of God and sacred history, Russian, were taught in district schools. language, arithmetic and geometry, geography, Russian. and general history, penmanship, drawing and drawing. Having assumed the duties of an honorary caretaker, I. V. Kireevsky had to not only take care of the material well-being of the school, keep its economic part under supervision, but also monitor its management, being present at pedagogical councils. The dogmas of faith are the divinely revealed speculative truths that contain the teaching about God and His relationship to the world and man; which are defined and confessed by the Universal Church and are generally binding on all its members. The theological justification of dogmas constitutes the content of dogma. The course of the Law of God taught in primary educational institutions included an exposition of the dogmas of faith. The teaching of the Law of God in primary schools was introduced in Russia, as in Europe, at the end. XVIII century, simultaneously with the formation of the system of primary educational institutions. The Law of God as a primary school subject consisted of church prayers, sacred history, catechism and explanation of worship. Voltaire (present, name Marie-François Arouet) (1694–1778) – French. poet, prose writer, publicist and philosopher, one of the ideologists of the French Revolution. Author of satirical works directed against the Catholic Church and the monarchy. This is not about Kant's critique of the mind, but about most of the systems of German philosophers in general. This refers to the textbook by E. B. Syreyshchikov “A Brief Russian Grammar, Published for Public Schools of the Russian Empire by the Highest Order of the Reigning Empress Catherine the Second” (St. Petersburg, 1787). Anton Feliksovich Yazwinsky (1789 - ca. 1870) - Polish. teacher, doctor of philosophy, 1820–1840 developed a mnemonic teaching method, using mainly synchronistic and chronological tables. Perhaps Kireevsky was familiar with the works of A. Yazvinsky: “Methods of teaching the chronology of the history of Mr. Yazvinsky, explained by the inventor himself” (1837), “Guide to the chronographic map for studying the history of the main European states, compiled by A. Yazvinsky” (1837), etc. In district schools additional general knowledge about domestic legalization could be given. Under Emperor Nicholas I, all existing laws of the Russian Empire were systematized and published in a fifteen-volume Code of Laws. “A note...” outlining I. V. Kireevsky’s views on public education was addressed to his immediate superior, Count Sergei Grigorievich Stroganov (1794–1882), trustee of the Moscow educational district, who convinced Ivan Vasilyevich to accept the position of caretaker. S. G. Stroganov was a trustee of the Moscow educational district in 1835–1847, earning well-deserved respect from the enlightened Moscow public. In 1836–1848 and 1857–1874 - Chairman of the Imperial Society of Russian History and Antiquities at the Imperial Moscow University. Perv. publ.: Orthodox Review. 1860. T. 1, February. pp. 272–278. Publ. by decree ed. The note was written for presentation to the Minister of Public Education A.S. Norov. I.V. Kireevsky sent it to his friend A.V. Venevitinov with an accompanying letter: “I ask you, dear friend, to read my attached note, because although you find it difficult to write to your friends, you are not lazy to read their writings, and if you find this note consistent with your way of thinking, then support it with your opinion from Norov, on whom its implementation now depends, for our trustee agrees with her and is now in St. Petersburg, where he will talk about her with Norov. I consider this matter to be one of the most useful improvements that can be made in district schools - it is especially useful here in Belev, where there are more than seventy different schismatic opinions and new schisms with the most empty differences are formed every year, no doubt because the Orthodox people have weakened in church teaching. The more literate a schismatic is, the stronger his knowledge of church knowledge; The more literate an Orthodox is, the more he avoids reading and studying church books, leaving his illiterate neighbors completely defenseless against the attacks of schismatics. That is why the illiterate are drawn into schisms, while the literate are busy reading translated novels and feuilletons of the Northern Bee. And if you look impartially, then of all the evils that Russia suffers, almost the most harmful and the most terrible lies in schismaticism; and all violent measures against this evil can hardly have any other effect than to strengthen the spirit of opposition. By force you can reduce the number of schismatics, but all the more to elevate their spirit and, consequently, increase their contagiousness. Alcohol will come out of the crumbled half-gar - and God forbid from the fire!” (quoted from: Barsukov N.P. Life and works of M.P. Pogodin. Book 12. P. 164). The proposals of I.V. Kireevsky, expressed in this note, were, by the highest order, carried out in the form of a trial at the Belevsky district school. Until 1863, there was a system of tax farming in Russia, in which, for a certain fee or a pledge of real estate, a private individual (farmer) acquired from the state the right to sell certain types of goods in a certain territory. Trade in wine farming was more widespread than others. Deacons were members of the church clergy whose duties included reading and singing during church services. The clergy was a class for which education was compulsory. The practice of sending children to learn to read and write to priests, deacons or junior clerics was widespread. After the ABC, the children learned to read from the liturgical books, the Book of Hours and the Psalter. You might be interested in: