Отдел третий. Внешний и внутренний рост Римского католицизма

XI. Composition of the population of North America. European emigration and the Catholic part of it. The nations that make up the Roman Catholic Church and their comparative significance for it. The process of numerical growth of the Roman Catholic population. – XII. Founding of the bishopric and growth of the church organization. Conciliar form of church government. Anti-Catholic movements. Legal position of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States. – XIII. The second complete cathedral of Baltimore. Its historical and canonical significance for the Roman Catholic Church of the country. Acts and decrees. – XIV. Monastic orders and their significance for the creation of Roman Catholicism in America. Jesuits and Sulpicians. Emigration of male and female orders to America following popular emigration. Their important services to the cause of Roman Catholicism. The population of North America is almost exclusively immigrant. The native population, which consisted of small Indian tribes and occupied its entire space before the discovery of the mainland, did not have the strength to preserve its identity and retain the mainland. In the person of white people, a death sentence appeared for him, as the inevitable result of a hostile clash between the strong and the weak. With the white people came a higher culture, before which the primitive culture of the native population had to give way, and indeed, as the white people advanced, they began to retreat into the wild bowels of the continent, until finally they were reduced to the present insignificant number, which, taken together, would hardly constitute one city of average size among the many cities of the newcomer population. At present the Indian population within the limits of the United States does not rise to 300,000 persons, 308 while the whole population according to the latest census is determined at fifty millions, 309 so that the former is an insignificant drop in the ocean of the alien population. If the entire population of the country owes its increase almost exclusively to the external influx of immigrants and their natural increase, then the growth of each part of this population must be sought for the same reasons. The Roman Catholic population, as a constituent part of the whole mass of the population, must therefore owe its increase first and foremost to the same general causes of the growth of the American people. But in order to form a clear idea of ​​the process of growth of the Roman Catholic population proper, it is necessary to make a general overview of the growth of the entire American population, of which it forms an organic part. The earliest European settlement within the United States was in Virginia in 1609, excluding a settlement in Florida, which was not part of the original thirteen union colonies, in 1565. 310 New York was settled in 1613 and New England in 1620. 311 Initial settlement was slow. The remoteness of the journey and the unknown nature of the country frightened the imagination, and at first only various adventurers, religious missionaries and those persecuted for their religious beliefs ventured overseas. The earliest settlers from the Old World to the New were, as we know, the Spaniards, greedy gold seekers who arrived in America soon after its discovery, but did not establish permanent settlements until later. The Dutch settlers who founded the colony of New Amsterdam, which later became known as New York, were also simple industrialists and mining seekers. But the English Puritans, who migrated to the New World and founded a colony in New England, and the English Catholics, who founded a colony in Maryland, were the main pioneers in the settlement of the mainland. They fled from unbearable persecution and looked for a new and permanent fatherland in the New World. It is impossible to form an accurate idea of ​​the number of these early settlers, since there are no official data for this. It was only in 1819 that Congress passed a resolution that began to keep records of settlers in various ports of the country. Until this time, the influx of immigrants, however, did not have consistency and stability and was subject to various fluctuations, although the average annual increase was noticeable until 1806. Careful statistical studies show that from 1784 to 1794, settlers arrived annually at an average of 4,000 people. In 1794, about ten thousand arrived. During the ten-year period from 1806 to 1816, emigration almost completely ceased due to hostile relations between the United States, Great Britain and France. But with the advent of peace, it was in 1817 that it immediately rose to a significant figure of 22,240. In view of the rapid increase in European emigration, Congress took measures to regulate it and established statistical committees, from whose reports the gradual progress of emigration can be traced. Over the past sixty years, the course of emigration is presented as follows: 312 (year - number of immigrants): 1820 - 8,385; 1821 – 9.127; 1822 – 6,911; 1823 – 6.354; 1824 – 7.912; 1825 – 10.199; 1826 – 10.837; 1827 – 18.875; 1828 – 27,382; 1829 – 22,520; 1830 – 23,322; 1831 – 22,633; 1832 – 60,482; 1833 – 58,640; 1834 – 65.365; 1835 – 45,374; 1836 – 76.242; 1837 – 79,340; 1838 – 38,914; 1839 – 68,069; 1840 – 84,066; 1841 – 80.289; 1842 – 104.565; 1843 – 52,496; 1844 – 78,615; 1845 – 114.371; 1846 – 154.416; 1847 – 234.968; 1848 – 226.527; 1849 – 297.024; 1850 – 369.980; 1851 – 379.466; 1852 – 371.603; 1853 – 368.645; 1854 – 427.833; 1855 – 200.877; 1856 – 195.857; 1857 – 246.945; 1858 – 119,501; 1859 – 118,616; 1860 – 150.237; 1861 – 89,724; 1862 – 89.007; 1863 – 174,524; 1864 – 193.195; 1865 – 247.453; 1866 – 167,757; 1867 – 298.967; 1868 – 282.189; 1869 – 352,768; 1870 – 387.203; 1871 – 321,350; 1872 – 404,806; 1873 – 459.803; 1874 – 313.339; 1875 – 227.498; 1876 ​​– 169.986; 1877 – 141,857; 1878 – 138.469; 1879 – 177.826; 1880 – 457.257. Total for sixty years 10,138,758. If we add to this number the number of immigrants who arrived before 1820, which is determined at 250,000 people, and the number of immigrants for the second half of the calendar year 1880, which was not included in this count, then the entire number of immigrants who found a new homeland for themselves in America will be about ten and a half million (10,500,000) people - a number that, together with three and a half million of the original population is sufficient to account for the whole number of the inhabitants of the United States, as determined by the last census. The account presented includes all immigrants who have just arrived within the United States from all countries of the world. But the most important number comes from European settlers, who make up at least 80 percent of the total. 313 It is now interesting to trace which countries primarily provided these settlers. From 1820 to 1880, immigrants arrived in the following numbers by nationality: From Ireland - 3,065,761; England - 894,444; Scotland - 159,547; Wallis - 17,893; Germany – 3,002,027; Sweden and Norway - 306,092; France – 313,716; Switzerland – 83,709; Italy – 70,181; Holland – 44,319; Denmark – 48,620; Russia – 38,316; Austria-Hungary - 65,588; Poland – 14,831; Belgium – 23,267; Spain - 28,091; Greece and Turkey – 1.004. Total – 8,746,921. 314 This table includes both Protestant and Catholic countries. If we isolate from this sum the amount attributable to Catholic countries, it will approximately determine the number of newcomers who became part of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States. Of these countries, some have a purely Catholic population, with minor exceptions, others have only a Catholic minority, and others have a Protestant population. The latter include Holland, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, which therefore should not be included in our count. The countries in which the Catholic population is a minority are: England, Scotland, Wallis, Switzerland, Russia 315 and Germany. The sum of the number of immigrants given by them is 4,195,936. If we put the Catholic population for them at ¼ of the total number, 316, then the acquisition of the Roman Catholic Church from them will equal a round number of 1,050,000 people. Then there are countries with a predominantly Catholic population: Ireland, France, Italy, Spain, Austria-Hungary, Poland and Belgium. The sum of the number of migrants given by them is 3,581,435. The Catholic population in them makes up 9/10 of the total population. In that case, the gain from them for the Roman Catholic Church in the United States would be, in round numbers, 3,223,000 people. Together with the previous number this will amount to the round figure of four and a quarter million, 317 A number which is more than sufficient to explain the origin of the entire Catholic population in the United States, which now rises to 7,000,000 persons. 318 So, the main source and main reason for the numerical growth of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States is the emigration of the Catholic population from Europe. If the emigration, which began to arrive in a particularly strong wave on American shores since the 40s, had ceased or was carried out from Protestant countries, so that the growth of Roman Catholicism had depended entirely or mainly only on the natural increase of population or on the acquisition of converts from Protestantism and paganism, then the Roman Catholic Church in the United States would now be insignificant in numerical terms, as Catholic publicists themselves admit. 319 This can be judged with sufficient clarity from the comparative growth of Roman Catholicism in America with its growth in England during the same period, namely during the last fifty years, when the laws against the persecution of Catholics were repealed in England. From that time on, the Roman Catholic Church in England was completely free both in its governance and in the matter of propaganda and the return to its fold of the population that had fallen away from it during persecution. Despite this legal equality, the growth of Roman Catholicism in England was far less than its growth in the United States. In 1830 there were more Catholics in England than in the United States. Since that time the Church in both countries has been equally free in its life, activities and development, and yet at the present time the number of Catholics in the United States is almost four times greater than in England. In 1830, according to the most reliable estimate, there were 600,000 Catholics in England, and 500,000 in the United States, while at present there are about two million in England, while in the United States, as stated above, their number rises to seven million. 320 The composition of the Roman Catholic population of the United States is divided into many different nationalities, but the predominant importance in the fate of the church belongs to three nationalities - Irish, German and French. To them the Roman Catholic Church owes its growth and greatness chiefly. Each of these three nationalities contributed its own special share to the common cause of building Roman Catholicism in America. The French element in the Roman Catholic Church in America is one of the most ancient and it, in a sense, constitutes its primary leaven on the soil of the New World. From it came the first valiant missionaries who, in the early period of the history of the United States, carried the Christian message among the savage Indian tribes, and the blood of these missionaries was, so to speak, the seed of Roman Catholicism in the country. French colonists, before the declaration of independence of the United States, settled mainly in Canada, since only there Catholics enjoyed complete freedom of conscience. Since the legal declaration of Catholic equality in the United States, French emigration headed to its shores and from 1820 to 1880 it strengthened Roman Catholicism by more than 300,000 people. In addition, this fact had a significant effect on the French population of Canada itself. With the declaration of the independence of the States and the equalization of Catholics with Protestants, the French population of Canada found a tendency to emigrate to the United States, and gradually this emigration increased to the considerable figure of 99,000 in one last year. Over the past thirty years, the total number of French Catholics who migrated from Canada has risen to half a million people. 321 The presence of this Canadian element is a noticeable feature in all the dioceses bordering Canada, where a large part of the parishes consists exclusively of French Canadians. 322 To this number of French Catholics must be added several thousand immigrants from Saint-Domingue and other West Indian islands who sought refuge in the United States in 1793, as a result of the unrest caused by the echoes of the French Revolution and the uprising of the blacks. These French Catholics, in the words of a Catholic author, "infused faith, piety, and wealth into the infant Church, and their posterity, faithful to their religion, are numbered among the noblest citizens of the republic." 323 Their number was significantly increased by the acquisition or admission into the Union of territories populated mostly by French Catholics. Thus, in 1803, Louisiana was acquired, which at that time had a population of about 35,000, almost exclusively consisting of Catholics. In general, the French element was important in the formation and creation of the Roman Catholic Church in America and it gave it, as we will see below, a number of brilliant hierarchs who provided irreplaceable services to the cause of Roman Catholicism in the country. Even more important than the French element in the Roman Catholic Church is the German element, although it already constitutes a later stratification. Until half of the present century the German population in the United States was insignificant; but from the end of the 40s, when a storm of revolutionary unrest broke out over Germany and then a system of iron militarism set in, German emigration immediately poured into America in a strong stream, and over the period of the last thirty years has given more than two million immigrants. According to the latest estimate, the German Catholic population amounts to about one and a half million souls, 324 constituting about a fourth of the entire Roman Catholic population in the United States. “In the Catholic Church of the United States,” says a Catholic publicist, one cannot find a people more devoted, sincere and better educated in their religion than the Germans. The number of their churches, schools, seminaries, hospitals, orphanages can be compared favorably, both from an intellectual and material point of view, with similar institutions of any other part of the Catholic population. No one is better equipped than the Germans with priests for the people and teachers for children. Among them flourish various religious orders, and especially those which serve the cause of learning. Among the highest hierarchy, one archbishop and several bishops are Germans by birth or origin.” 325 But the significance of both named nationalities recedes into the background before the significance that the Irish people had for the development and growth of Roman Catholicism in the United States. If the French people were the primary leaven for him, and the German gave him intellectual and quantitative strength, then the Irish people brought with them to America the whole organic essence of Roman Catholicism, its spirit and flesh in organic integrity, its idea and traditions. This is the chosen people of the Roman Catholic Church, which, according to the views of Catholic historians, has a higher, providential purpose - to create the kingdom of Roman Catholicism on the soil of the New World, to carry this historical shrine of the Romano-Celtic peoples from under the European yoke to the new promised land, just as the ancient chosen people carried the shrine of divine promise from the land of Egyptian slavery to the promised land antiquity. “In considering the gratifying success of the Church in the United States,” says the Catholic historian, justice requires it to be stated that it is largely due to the faith, zeal, and generosity of the Irish people who came to these shores, and their posterity. We are far from wanting to diminish the merits of other nationalities; but the enormous influence exercised by the Irish people in the spread of the dominion of the Church deserves special notice, as it affords an edifying lesson. The wonderful history of the Irish nation has always led us to the conviction that, like the chosen offspring of Abraham, it was destined by Providence for a special mission to preserve and spread the true faith. To her zeal and energy we must attribute to a very large extent the rapid increase in the number of churches and other institutions which have sprung up in the United States, and to the same source the clergy largely owe their support in the exercise of their pastoral office. It cannot be denied that hundreds of clergy who labor for the salvation of souls would starve and their labors for religion would be in vain, if only for the generous help given to them by the sons of Erin, who in the majority know how to evaluate the benefits of religion, and therefore joyfully contribute from their earthly means to purchase the spiritual goods distributed by the church. 326 "The Irish, says the Catholic writer, were preserved by Providence and destined to be a missionary people, especially to the English-speaking world of our time, and he thus blesses those who cursed him, and benefits those who despised him." 327 “If we turn,” says the Catholic bishop-publicist Spalding, to an explanation of the revival of Catholicism among English-speaking peoples, we must at once recognize that the Irish people are the providential instrument through which God brought about this wonderful revival. If it had not been for Ireland, Catholicism would now be weak and unsuccessful in America, England and Australia. The force of this statement is not weakened by the weight and importance which must be given to what the converts in England and the Germans and French in the United States have done for the church. The Irish have made possible and valid the very work of converts, and they have given Catholicism in this country a strength and attraction which enables it to assimilate the most heterogeneous elements, and without which it is not inconceivable that the vast majority of the Catholics who migrate here from other countries would be lost to the Church. No nation could do for the Catholic faith in the United States what the Irish people did for it. His abiding affection for the priests; his deep Catholic instincts, which no combination of circumstances could bring into conflict with his love of country; not the worldly and spiritual temperament of national character; his indifference to ridicule and contempt, and his unflagging generosity, were all perfectly suited to the work that was to be done, and enabled him, notwithstanding the strong prejudice against it which the Americans inherited from England, to do what could not have been done by Italian, French, or German Catholics. No nation has received such providential preparation for this work, and God has not required such proofs of love from any people. Like the children of Israel, the Irish bore the yoke of slavery, were delivered from the sea of ​​blood and wandered weary years in the desert without home or fatherland, and were saved from despair and death only by the presence of the pillar of fire that is the Catholic Church.” 328 Thus, the main role in the building of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States belongs to the Irish people. He constitutes its soul and body, and if the future of America belongs to Roman Catholicism, as Catholic publicists openly declare, 329 then it will owe this to the religious energy of the Irish people. He, as the chosen people, has a high religious mission to re-establish the kingdom of Roman Catholicism in the new promised land, and this mission of his finds a remarkable confirmation in the fact that this promised land itself, America, owes its original discovery to none other than the Irish. Catholic historians of the Irish people claim that the first white people America ever saw were Irish missionaries from the early centuries of Christianity. Thus, already in the 6th century, the Irish monk St. visited the shores of America. Brendan, penetrated into the interior of the continent as far as the present state of Ohio, and after a stay there of seven years returned to Ireland, at the command of "a certain man accompanying him, of venerable bearing, who told him that he had already gone quite far, and that further discoveries should be left for other people of later times who would come and Christianize this glorious land." 330 This legend in the eyes of Catholic historians has the significance of an actual historical fact and on the basis of it they predict that the future of America belongs to these faithful sons of the Roman Catholic Church, who serve as its cornerstone. 331 Despite the legendary antiquity of the Irish migration to America and the primacy of the Irish people within the Roman Catholic Church on the soil of the New World, the Irish people became a real force for Roman Catholicism only very recently. Although Irish emigration began from the very declaration of its independence by the United States and the proclamation of freedom of conscience for Roman Catholics and gradually increased, especially since the beginning of this century, Irish emigration became a truly tremendous source of numerical strength for the Roman Catholic Church only from the mid-40s of this century, when a successive series of poor potato harvests (in 1846, 1847 and 1848) plunged the people into the abyss poverty and the horrors of starvation. “The destruction of potato crops in Ireland was undoubtedly the work of an inscrutable Providence,” says the Catholic publicist; the disaster, suffering and sacrifice of human lives that followed was already the work of man. In the worst times of famine, the country always had more than enough livestock and grain to feed the population. Under a wise or just government, a sufficient quantity would be retained to supply the prime wants of the people; but all this was exported and sold in foreign markets to satisfy that most insatiable of all human beings, the Irish landlord. Struck by the surprise and enormity of the disaster, the peasantry was at first petrified, and before help could arrive, hundreds died of starvation. Then, when private and public charity was exhausted, when poverty was joined by an epidemic, when nothing but death or an almshouse was in sight even for the best people of the middle class, the people decided to leave their fatherland and, like a defeated army, rushed to the nearest ports and left the country, apparently doomed to destruction. Many fled to England and Scotland, but most sought refuge in the United States. From that time on, every day witnessed the arrival of crowded ships in our harbors, while the streets of our great cities were literally crowded with crowds of strange and emaciated figures. From 1840 to 1850, more than a million of these Irish emigrants came to the United States.” 332 Since this great migration of the Irish people, Irish emigration has occupied the most honorable place in the list of emigrating peoples, and, as we have seen above, during the period from 1820 to 1880, gave a figure of more than three million souls. From the beginning of the seventies until 1876, a gradual weakening was noticeable, but from that year it again noticeably revived and in the last year, in which Ireland was again visited by its formidable scourge - famine, Irish emigration again reached a large figure of more than sixty-five thousand souls. At present the entire Irish Catholic population rises to 4,250,000 souls. 333 The Irish people gave the church a number of famous hierarchs who greatly contributed to the organization of church-religious life, and as if to justify the high religious mission assumed by Catholic historians for it, these hierarchs constituted and constitute the foundation stones of the entire hierarchical edifice of Roman Catholicism in the United States. The first bishop of the Roman Catholic Church in this country, Carrol, the so-called “patriarch of the American Church,” 334 was the son of Irish immigrants; he was also the first archbishop of the church. 335 The first bishop elevated to the rank of cardinal in the United States, the present Archbishop of New York McClossky, is also the son of Irish parents. 336 And this same nation produced a number of other hierarchs who, by their energy for the benefit of the church, occupy the most prominent position in the history of the church. Such are Bishop England, “Chrysostom of the American Church,” 337 and Archbishop Hughes, to whom, in the words of a Catholic historian, “Catholicism in America owes a debt of gratitude which cannot be expressed in numbers.” 338 But the success of the Irish mission as the chosen people of the Roman Catholic Church is paralyzed by their disadvantaged social position in America. Arriving in America in extreme poverty, they overrun the cities and become the landless proletariat, victims of the changing vicissitudes of the industrial market. At present there are no factories, the wharves and mines are crowded with Irish workers, and all the service personnel in the cities are mostly Irish. 339 This situation is disadvantageous for them in many respects. It places them in the eyes of American society in the position of some kind of inferior race, new pariahs, an ignorant and superstitious people, which view is transferred to the Roman Catholic faith they profess. Crowded life in the cities has a detrimental effect on his morals and health, and in addition makes him a victim of ambitious political agitators, who, taking advantage of his low political development, use him as improvised material for campaigning of all kinds, especially during presidential elections, demoralizing him with bribery and all sorts of chimerical promises. 340 This state of the Irish people is a subject of great concern to representatives of the Roman Catholic Church, who are aware that if the Church mainly owes its greatness to the Irish people, then their moral decline will inevitably entail harmful consequences for the Church. Therefore, they are trying in every possible way to lure him away from the cities and settle him in the Far West on farms. For this purpose, a special “society of Irish Catholic colonization” was formed, the main figures in which are the Roman Catholic hierarchs. The society buys land in the territories of the Far West and gives it to the Irish at a cheap price, with payment in installments. A particularly prominent and zealous figure in this field is Bishop Ireland, whose diocese embraces the territory of Minnesota, the main wheat granary of the country. He began his activities about five years ago and in 1876 founded the first colony. “His plan is very simple,” says another advocate of Irish farming colonization, Bishop Spalding. He selects a strip of land of fifty or one hundred thousand acres, the exclusive disposal of which is given to him by the railroad company 341 for three years. Through a special bureau organized by him, he brings all the details and conditions of sale to the attention of Catholics who wish to secure a house for themselves. He selects the priest most familiar with farming and farm life to lead the new colony, and sends him to the place to receive the settlers, who, on their arrival, find in him a father and friend. The church is the first building to be erected and settlers choose plots of land around it. The settlements are located at proper distances along the railway line. A few weeks after the opening of the colony, a post office and a trading shop are opened in it, but a drinking establishment is not allowed.” 342 There are now a hundred such colonies and they fully achieve the goals of their founders, namely to remove the Irish population from the corrupting influence of urban industrial life and give them an independent village life based on strict religious and moral principles. “The power of religion,” says Spalding, “in these primitive settlements and in the presence of wild nature, is almost unbelievably great. There are no drinking establishments, no idle halls where the lazy or dissatisfied can gather to cause social unrest. On Sundays the entire community gathers for church. A new world will soon grow here. The first newcomers notice that they have creative power, that instead of being wage slaves, they become the founders of an independent community. Their self-consciousness rises and their entire moral and religious character is elevated.” 343 “It must henceforth be the duty of the Church in America, observes a Catholic writer, to see that no Catholic family coming to our shores and seeking a new fatherland in our Western States and Territories should escape from its control, but should be directed to localities where its priests are ready to receive him and where his fellow citizens will be bound to him by the bonds of faith. Catholics in this country already make up one sixth. We daily make acquisitions from the ranks of the Protestant sects; few, if any, fall away from us; The emigration of the future, on a significant scale, will be in our hands. Thus the church in America, where our most holy father is now, in his own expression, “a more effective pope than in any other country,” will increase in strength and beauty, and thus be prepared, when the hour comes, to save the republic for which her sons, from the hour of her birth to the present time, have shed their blood, labored and prayed for her to an infinite degree.” 344 Of the other nationalities in the Roman Catholic Church in the United States are the Spaniards, who founded the first settlements in the southern reaches of the country; Italians, who make up the later layer; Czechs, who form a fairly populous colony with several churches in New York and other cities, and Poles, of whom there are up to forty thousand in New York, about one hundred thousand in Chicago, and in the territory of Texas there are entire settlements that speak exclusively Polish. Then the Roman Catholic Church includes about 106,000 Indians 345 and about 25,000 blacks. 346 The total number of these small Catholic nationalities amounts to half a million souls. The main source of the numerical increase of the Roman Catholic population is, as can be seen from the above, the emigration of European Catholic peoples. But its increase was also influenced by some other reasons, although of secondary importance. Thus, during the current century, several territories that had a more or less significant Catholic population were annexed to the United States. In 1803, Louisiana was annexed with a population of up to thirty-five thousand, almost exclusively consisting of Catholics. In 1819 Florida was purchased with a population of 18,000, in 1845 Texas was purchased and in 1848 California and New Mexico, together having a population of about 160 thousand, almost exclusively Catholic. 347 But besides this purely external addition and stratification, the reason for the numerical growth of the Roman Catholic population is an increased internal increase through the natural process of births. A general remarkable fact has been noted that the natural increase in the alien population in the American population is much greater in proportion than the increase in the native element. This can best be seen from the statistics regarding the states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. They show that in the native American population the number of deaths exceeds the number of births. But Massachusetts is still experiencing population growth, so where is it coming from? “Wherever there is an increase,” says the learned statistician Dr. Allen, it is found to be from the alien element, and depends either on emigration or on a greater number of births into it. It is now a fairly established fact that the immigrant population on average has three times as many children as the native American population.” 348 Rhode Island population census for 1875 shows that "during the past ten years the native American population, by natural increase, increased only 12.89 percent, while the alien population, by the same process, increased 80.11 percent during the same time." 349 The reasons for this phenomenon are partly that emigration produces predominantly adults, so that among them the percentage of people of the age when children are born is almost twice the percentage in the native population; 350 then emigration provides an advantage of physically working people, which also contributes to greater fertility. Finally, religious and moral reasons are very important, especially in relation to Roman Catholics. The native American population, with wide freedom of divorce and the dominance of civil marriage, weakened the bonds of married life and thereby reduced its fruits, while the Roman Catholic newcomer population, considering marriage a sacrament and a sacred union, preserves the purity and strength of its bonds and at the same time preserves all its productivity. “Bitter experience,” notes the Catholic author, will teach statesmen that to protect the state from certain fall there is no other means than bringing its legislation into harmony with Christian morality, as it is taught only by the Catholic Church. If the Catholic Church of the United States, he adds, were left only to the law of natural increase, then it is obvious that this alone is sufficient for its rapid growth in comparison with the population of the country. 351 All these causes taken together produced the result that the Roman Catholic population during one century, and especially from the 40s of the present century, grew and increased with incredible rapidity, rising from the insignificant figure of 25,000 in 1776 to 7,000,000 in 1880. Over the decades it increased in this way: in the year of the declaration of independence of the United States, namely in 1776, the Catholic population, according to the usual assumption of historians, consisted of 25,000 souls; 352 fourteen years later, precisely in 1790, when the first national census was taken, there were 30,000 Catholics, according to the calculation of the first Bishop Carroll. 353 In the next decade the Catholic population tripled and numbered 100,000 in 1800; in 1810 – 150,000, in 1820 – 300,000; in 1830 – 500,000. From this time on, a monstrous increase began due to the great migration of European peoples, especially from Ireland. In 1840 the figure of the Catholic population rose to 1,500,000 souls; in the next decade this significant figure more than doubled and in 1850 was estimated at 3,500,000 souls. Over the next decade, another million souls were added, so that in 1860 there were already 4,500,000; in 1870 it increased to 5,500,000, and finally, during the past decade, it has increased by another million and a half, so that its number is now determined at seven million souls, which is about a seventh of the entire population of the United States. Impressive as these figures are in themselves, they become even more astonishing when the proportional growth of the Roman Catholic population is compared with that of the entire population of the States. In 1776, with a total population of three million, Catholics constituted only 1/120 of it; in 1790 in a population of 8,200,000 they were 1/107; in 1800, in a population of 5,300,000, Catholics already accounted for 1/53; in 1810 in a population of 7,200,000 they constituted 1/48th; in 1820, in a population of 9,600,000, they constituted 1/32; in 1830, in a population of thirteen million, Catholics accounted for l/26; in 1840, in a population of seventeen million, they amounted to 1/11 of an hour; in 1850, in a population of 23,200,000, they constituted one-seventh part, and then in the following decades the proportional growth of the entire population was kept at a level with the growth of the Roman Catholic population, so that the proportional part of the latter did not move beyond the seventh part, 354 which it is now. The reason for this can be partly indicated in the change in the composition of European emigration, in which a weakening of immigrants from Catholic countries and a strengthening from Protestant countries, especially from northern Germany and the Scandinavian states, have recently been noticed. 355 Thus, the Roman Catholic population of the United States during the past century, since the declaration of independence and the declaration of freedom of conscience to all religions, has grown and increased almost literally by leaps and bounds. But in itself it did not yet constitute the Roman Catholic Church. It arrived scatteredly and without any church organization. Scattered throughout a foreign country, among a hostile Protestant population, it could easily become confused and die. If, on the contrary, it was preserved and almost the entire mass entered the body of the Roman Catholic Church, then it owes this to the church itself, in the person of its hierarchy. The growth of the latter was proportional to the growth of the Catholic population, and its efforts in organizing church life represent a new remarkable page in the history of Roman Catholicism in America. Before the declaration of independence and the drawing up of the federal constitution, Roman Catholicism in the United States had almost no right to exist, as shown above. The insignificant Catholic population, scattered over a vast area, led a miserable and downtrodden life, not daring to openly worship and organize the church. Not many priests wandered around the country like ghosts, looking for their flock and often hiding their very title in order to avoid harsh laws against themselves. 356 Only in the wild wilds of the country, among the wild sons of the primeval forests, where the legislative power of the white newcomers had not yet penetrated, were Catholic priests, in the form of Jesuit missionaries, able to freely work in the field of serving Roman Catholicism, openly celebrate Mass and make converts to the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church, without fear of harsh laws and only caring about preserving their skulls from the capricious tomahawk convertibles. At the time of the drafting of the federal constitution, all the Roman Catholic priests in the country, including the Jesuit missionaries, numbered from thirty to forty. 357 This small church had almost no organization. Until the declaration of war it was under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Vicar Apostolic of London. 358 This jurisdiction, due to the difficulty of communications, the dispersion of the Catholic population and the absence of cohesive parishes, was only nominal even before the war, and since the declaration of war it has completely ceased, since the apostolic vicar was put in a difficult position by this war between two warring parties. He transferred his power to the head of the Jesuit mission in America, who governed the Roman Catholic community during the struggle for independence. At the end of the war, which resulted in the recognition of the independence of the United States from the English metropolis, the apostolic vicar of London could no longer continue to exercise his hierarchical authority over the American church, since the American people, having broken their political connection with England, could no longer tolerate any dependence on it, even in the field of church life. 359 Thus the Catholic community was left completely without any hierarchical head. This state of affairs was sad, and the head of the mission called a meeting to discuss the state of the church and work out some kind of organization. The assembly appointed a committee to draw up rules that could serve as a basis for “establishing the form of government of the clergy and laying down rules for the conduct and administration of their property.” 360 These rules, expressed in eighteen members and adopted by the meeting on October 11, 1784, established the church organization in general and parts, appointed the procurator as an authority distinct from the supreme superior of the entire church, and the activities of the latter were subject to the approval of the district authorities. 361 These decrees, made without any canonical authority, were of course only temporary and did not represent the guarantee of a large organization such as the Church needed. 362 “It was obvious, says the historian, that in the clergy of Maryland some germs of independence were developing, from contact with the spirit of political and religious self-will (rebellion), which forms the basis of the American character. But the sacred seat (curia) watched with paternal solicitude the rising church in America, and at the sight of the principles of toleration which Protestantism now for the first time recognized for Catholicism in the United States, Rome immediately realized what precious benefits could be derived for religion. The sacred seat immediately set about establishing the church in Maryland on a more independent basis and freeing it from all spiritual subordination to England.” 363 In a word, the curia decided to found an independent bishopric in the American church and for this purpose, through the United States envoy in Paris, the famous philosopher Benjamin Franklin, presented to the congress the following note, interesting and important in the sense of characterizing the initial diplomatic relations of the Roman curia with the government of the new republic: “Before the revolution, which has just ended in the United States of North America, the Catholics and missionaries of these provinces depended in spiritual matters on the apostolic vicar, having his residence in London. It is now obvious that this order cannot be maintained any longer; but as it is necessary that the Catholic Christians of the United States should have a clergyman to guide them in matters pertaining to religion, the congregation De propaganda fide, existing at Rome for the establishment and maintenance of the mission, came to the decision to propose to the congress to install in one of the cities of the United States of North America one of their Catholic brothers with the authority and power of an apostolic vicar and the dignity of a bishop, or simply with the rank of apostolic prefect. The institution of a suffragan-apostolic bishop is most appropriate, so that the Catholics of the United States may have at hand the acceptance of confirmation and consecration in their own country. And since it may sometimes happen that among the members of the Catholic community in the United States there will be no one qualified to accept the commission of spiritual government, either as a bishop or as an apostolic prefect, it may, under such circumstances, be necessary that the Congress should consent to the election of one from some foreign nation in close relations of friendship with the United States.” 364 This note is important not only as a historical document, but also as a document characterizing the views of the papal curia on the attitude of the American government to church affairs. She obviously did not envisage the beginning of the separation of church and state in the new republic, which, however, had been declared by most private constitutions since the declaration of independence and was only awaiting inclusion in the federal constitution of the country. Therefore, in political forms, she tried to surround this matter with all sorts of precautions, so as not to offend the sense of independence of the new state, in which she hoped for a rich harvest. 365 But the congress treated the diplomacy of the papal court with republican frankness. When Franklin presented the papal note to Congress, he received an answer to the effect that the federal government had no opinion on a matter that was not within its jurisdiction, since religious affairs were the responsibility of the individual states. 366 “This, at least, the Catholic historian notes, showed the absence of any opposition to the Catholic hierarchy; and if Protestant fanaticism did not attempt to excite the people and irritate the religious passions, it was because France was too necessary an ally to allow any injury to the religious feelings of Louis XVI. This monarch was known to take a keen interest in the spread of Catholicism in America, and France may thus have a claim to the glory of having rendered mighty assistance to the sacred seat in the founding of the American episcopate." 367 But the response of the congress, favorable for the hierarchical types of the curia, in its indifferent form, rather indicates the predominance in it of the principle of separation of church and state, which was already preparing for legal ratification, than on external political influences. In any case, the answer was favorable. It gave jurisdiction in this respect to the individual states; and since the state in which the establishment of the bishopric was supposed to be established, it was the state of Maryland, which, even before the outbreak of the war, proclaimed complete freedom of conscience and equality in matters of religion, then obviously the curia was given complete freedom of action in organizing the hierarchy at its own discretion. This was an important precedent for the independence of papal actions in America and it subsequently led, as we will see below, to such a breadth of rights and such independence of the pope in the affairs of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States, which he does not enjoy in any of the Western European Catholic countries. On November 6th, 1789, the cornerstone of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in the United States was laid. On this day, Pope Pius VI decreed the opening of a bishopric in the city of Baltimore, in the state of Maryland, and thus, notes the Catholic historian, “at the moment when the revolution was preparing the storm that was soon to engulf the entire Church of France, Providence was erecting another church across the ocean, where the valiant exiles of the priesthood could find a hospitable refuge.” 368 The first bishop was appointed a Jesuit, or rather, since the Jesuit order was closed at that time, ex-Jesuit John Carroll, who became the “patriarch of the American Church.” 369 The choice was extremely successful. Carrol, born (1735) in the era preceding the great storm of the struggle for independence, developed in himself such a tempered will, which, disciplined under the ferula of the Jesuit college and directed by Jesuit education to energetic service in the name of the motto ad majorem Dei gloriam, was well suited to the needs of the Roman Catholic Church in America. He had a herculean task ahead of him - to collect and unite into one organism the Roman Catholic population scattered throughout the United States. And he set about it with amazing zeal: he constantly traveled around all the provinces where Catholics lived, gathering scattered priests and missionaries and inspiring them with new energy in the field of his ministry. “Having made Baltimore the base and center of his actions, he soon made his power felt and respected even to the outskirts of Georgia, Maine and Michigan. Spiritual Hannibal, the wise prelate skillfully controlled his small detachment of several dozen priests. He gave each priest his blessing, encouraging him in his difficulties, reminding him of his high mission as the vanguard for the winning of souls. Weak points were strengthened, enemies were made neutral or turned into friends, and the limits of faith were gradually expanded." 370 In his person, the Roman Catholic Church, in addition to being a skilled organizer, first felt political strength in the United States, which was extremely important for the initial position of the church. He enjoyed great fame in the political world and, as is known, Congress used his services in negotiations with Catholic Canada; the famous Franklin was his friend, and his cousin Charles Carroll was one of those "fathers of the republic" who, as members of Congress, signed the "Declaration of Independence." 371 This position gave him the opportunity to enter into close relations even with the famous liberator of the country, Washington.” 372 The clever ex-Jesuit did not fail to derive the greatest benefit from all this for the church, and his most important act for the future of Catholicism was the famous memorial, presented to Congress through Washington, on the establishment of freedom of religious conscience in the country under the authority of the federal government. The article introduced into the constitution in this sense legally ensured for Roman Catholicism that equality with all other confessions, which it actually began to enjoy in the person of its happy and valiant representative. The essential needs of the church were however dire. A handful of priests and missionaries was completely insufficient for the actual needs. The study discovered many such remote Catholic settlements that had not seen a pastor among them for decades. 373 Therefore, one of the first concerns of the “patriarch of the American Church” was to found a college for the training of priests, which he opened in Georgetown, gathering a handful of scattered ex-Jesuits as a professorial corporation. 374 But the distraction of ex-Jesuits from their missionary and priestly service only increases the real need of the church. Then fate came to the aid of the needy church in the form of an event from which one could least expect benefits for the church. A terrible crisis was fast approaching in Catholic France. Disbelief and political rioting proudly raised their bold head and threatened with a bloody specter. The throne and the church trembled, feeling the signs of a volcanic earthquake beneath them. Under such dire circumstances, the monastic orders of Paris sought refuge outside French borders in advance, and the supreme general of the Sulpician order turned his gaze to America as the best refuge from the approaching storm. Having communicated with Bishop Carrol, the general elected four brothers of the order and, providing them with money, sent them to America along with five seminarians. 375 This was the first vanguard of the monastic army, which subsequently, as we will see below, began to arrive in thousands to the American shores. The newcomers quickly acquired land and buildings, in one of which they opened a seminary, the first special nursery for the American clergy, and, together with the ex-Jesuits, began to work energetically for the benefit of the infant church. 376 Meanwhile, the expected catastrophe of the revolution broke out in France; from its horrors, everything fell into confusion and, with a cry of despair, sauve qui pent, rushed beyond the borders of the unfortunate country. Many headed overseas. Between 1791 and 1799, the most turbulent period of the revolution, a party of French priests numbering twenty-three arrived in the United States, 377 almost equal to the number of all the clergy then available in the country. This party, consisting primarily of the most educated individuals and members of famous aristocratic families, 378 had enormous hierarchical significance for Roman Catholicism in America. She not only doubled the strength of the clergy, but also gave it new energy and introduced into the new church the organizing traditions of the harmonious, historically developed hierarchy of the French church. Six persons from this party subsequently became bishops in various regions of the United States. 379 Upon their arrival in the country of new refuge, these French exiles set about with energy the work of serving the country that had given them shelter. Most of them were grouped in Baltimore, as the center of Roman Catholicism, and gave the bishopric a new organizing and organizing force; others headed in various directions throughout the United States, sought out remote and abandoned Catholic settlements, established churches and performed divine services. They penetrated into the most remote and remote areas of the vast country and everywhere left traces of organizational activity. “The Catholic Church in the United States is deeply indebted to the zeal of the exiled French clergy,” says a Kentucky state historian. It supplied our infant missions with most of the earliest and most earnest workers, and it also gave us our first bishops. There is something in the elasticity and flexibility of the French character that makes them especially capable of foreign missions. They have always been the best missionaries among the Indians of North America; they can adapt their character to any circumstance and event, they feel at home and cheerful everywhere. The French ecclesiastics who came to our shores, although many of them had been brought up among all the luxury of refined France, could without a murmur subject themselves to all the difficulties and privations of a mission on the borders of civilization or in the heart of the desert. They could adapt to the climate, adapt to the feelings and customs of a people opposite to them in temperament and character.” 380 The first needs of the Roman Catholic Church, which consisted in an insufficient clergy, were thus more than satisfied by these French exiles. But their significance for the fate of Roman Catholicism is not limited to this. History was preparing them for a more important role in the future. Events in Europe, consisting of political and social unrest that weighed heavily on the masses, prepared the way for the great migration of European peoples to the soil of the New World. And “now,” says the Catholic writer, was the time to prepare the ground for the great European migration which was to produce the marvelous growth of the United States. Scattered throughout the vast area of ​​the Union, the emigrants found everywhere these veterans whom the French Revolution had sent to the New World as pioneers, experienced both in the sufferings of persecution and in the labors of the apostolate. Before this great human tide began, the old emigrant priests were like the primordial rocks that hold back and strengthen the geological strata. The Catholic part of the stormy tide has always settled around them and their disciples. Throughout the West, churches founded by old French settlers multiplied, and new ones sprang up wherever a Catholic priest settled. From that moment on, the magnificent progressive movement never ceased. The blood of the martyrs of France, the spirit of her exiled apostles, have become fruitful for the benefits which are daily felt by the American churches.” 381 Emigration indeed quickly followed the resettlement of the French clergy and, again, the first impulse for it was the horrors of the French Revolution, which were reflected throughout the most remote possessions of France. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, numerous families of French Catholics settled on the remote West Indian island of Saint-Domingue. Now the French Revolution has reached this island and shook its foundations; There was a bloody uprising of the black population, which forced the French to move to the United States, giving numerical strength to the Roman Catholic Church. 382 These settlers were so numerous that they “outnumbered the Protestant emigration of the previous century.” 383 Then, when the revolution in Ireland of 1798 ended in failure, the first party of the “chosen people” of the Roman Catholic Church rushed to the United States, as if as the vanguard of that grandiose migration, which later, as we saw above, gave a monstrous growth to Roman Catholicism in America. 384 The immigrants, driven by disaster, arrived without any organization, could easily become confused and perish for the church; but “spiritual pioneers” were already waiting for them in the new country, and it was around them that these settlers were besieged. At first, several huts were founded in the wild wilderness, from which a village with a church quickly formed, and then a whole city. 385 Following the influx of the Catholic population and the organizing activity of the clergy, the Roman Catholic Church, by the beginning of the present century, immediately emerged from obscurity and assumed a prominent position among other religious communities. Every priest who was assigned to an almost deserted parish saw himself surrounded by a large parish after a few years. In New York in 1807 there were already about 14,000 Catholics, whereas seventeen years earlier there were not even a hundred of them. 386 The Sulpician seminary and the Jesuit college meanwhile continued their work of preparing candidates for the priesthood, and the bishop could now count with greater confidence on meeting the needs of the increasing population for priests. At the beginning of this century he could already ordain these natives as priests, and in 1808 six people were ordained on one day, which day, as Carroll expressed it, was “a happy day for the diocese.” 387 At the same time, churches quickly arose and were built one after another in cities and villages. In 1806 the bishop laid the cornerstones of three churches in one city, Baltimore. 388 In 1808, there were already sixty-eight priests and eighty churches in his diocese. 389 Hitherto deserted, the diocese now represented a strong and numerous church, the administration of which in remote parts required new authoritative figures, and therefore the “patriarch of the American Church” turned to the pope with a request to appoint new bishops for certain parts of his diocese. Pope Pius VII accepted the request and, by decree of April 8, 1808, elevated Baltimore to the dignity of a metropolitan seat, and in four cities of the country: New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Bardstown, he opened new bishoprics, the last two of which were appointed bishops by the French settlers Cheverus and Flaget. 390 Thus, already at the beginning of this century, twenty-five years after the drafting of the federal constitution (1787), which gave Catholics the legal right to freedom of religious conscience, and twenty-three years after the opening of the first bishopric (1789) in the country, the Roman Catholic Church was already a harmonious hierarchical organization, consisting of four bishops with a metropolitan seat at the head. The death of the “patriarch of the American Church,” which followed at the end of 1815, 391 marks the first period in the history of the development of Roman Catholicism in America. This period is of extraordinary importance for subsequent history. He not only showed the power of Roman Catholicism to gain a position among other confessions, as soon as it was given equal rights with them to unhindered activity, but also left behind the brightest hopes for the future. If in the past, under difficult circumstances and still undefined legal conditions, he was able to create a strong organization from insignificance, then under better circumstances in the future, developed and prepared by this organization, he could only enjoy the fruits of the previous period, and he really began to develop and grow within the United States with amazing speed. In the history that follows, one after another comes forward as energetic champions for the supremacy of Roman Catholicism in the United States, endowed with remarkable abilities to adapt to changing circumstances. After two years of administration of the archbishop of Baltimore under the aged Archbishop Neal, 392 his place was taken by Archbishop Marechal, one of the French exiles during the Revolution. “The early days of his administration were littered with trials of the most painful nature,” says the historian. Catholics in the United States, living among a Protestant population and influenced by surrounding ideas of independence, did not always show submission to their pastors. The civil government of churches is a source of constant conflict, and the laity, seeing the way in which the Protestant churches are governed, too often encroach on power that does not belong to them. Archbishop Marechal had to struggle a lot with the spirit of insubordination and division, which threatened to end in open schism. In this difficult situation, the prelate displayed such zeal, prudence, devotion to his flock, firm stability in principles, which have ever characterized great bishops, and which successfully suppressed the development of disorder that threatened the church. 393 The cause of the disorder was the Protestant tendency of parishioners in many churches to seize control of not only the financial side of church life, but also the hierarchical one, so that the parishioners denied the right of the bishop to appoint a priest to the church and arrogated to themselves the uncontrolled right to elect priests for themselves according to their tastes and desires. 394 This tendency really threatened with serious consequences and undermined the very foundation of Roman Catholicism, as a bureaucratic church, but fortunately for him this tendency met both in the person of the Archbishop of Baltimore and other bishops, with an invincible opponent, before whom it had to give way. 395 The ecclesiastical difficulties caused by these unrest led to the development of a new form of church government. To successfully combat disorder, the individual efforts of individual bishops were not enough; this required the collective effort of the entire hierarchy, the collective meaning of the entire church. The idea of ​​convening a council for a general discussion of the situation of the church arose naturally. The implementation of this idea fell to the lot of the next Archbishop of Baltimore, Whitefield, who convened the “first provincial council of Baltimore” in 1829. In the period before the convening of the council, the hierarchy, despite the difficulties, developed with extraordinary speed, and by the time of its convening the church already consisted of nine dioceses, with the Baltimore metropolis at its head. 396 The council was composed of six prelates, since others, for various reasons, could not attend it. 397 And before this, private councils were held in Baltimore, 398 but they were of a simple advisory nature. The current council had independent legal significance in the sense of a body of church government, and therefore many important issues from church life and church government were discussed, and some of them were of such an important legal nature that the prelates called the best lawyers of the country to the council to resolve them. 399 Various questions raised by the circumstances of church life were proposed for consideration by the council, but paramount importance was given to the question of the relationship of the hierarchy to the laity, as required by the unrest and unrest caused by the Protestant tendency of the laity to interfere in church government. Therefore, bishops with particular persistence and force assert the right of the bishop to appoint priests to churches and limit the claims of trustees. 400 Having met at the council, the bishops could, from the comparative position of the dioceses, determine the general position of the church, both morally and materially. By the way, they also determined the size of the Catholic population at this time. Comparing the individual reports and summing them up, the council came to the conclusion that the number of Catholics in the United States in 1829 was over 500,000, and was daily increasing through emigration and conversions. 401 The conciliar form of church discussion and governance, after the first experience, turned out to be the most appropriate to the state of the church, whose members actually began to increase daily by thousands from the influx of European settlers that began from that time, which required extraordinary tension of all the organizational forces of the church to preserve Catholic emigration from dispersion among the Protestant population. And indeed, in subsequent times, the cathedrals were assembled in quick succession, one after another. By their activities and composition one can judge both the development of the legal consciousness of the church and the growth of the church organization. In 1833, the “second provincial council of Baltimore” was convened. It was attended by ten prelates, headed by the Archbishop of Baltimore, among whom three were representatives of the newly opened bishoprics of St. Louis, Mobile and Detroit. 402 The Council developed rules for the election of bishops, 403 outlined new dioceses, entrusted Indians and blacks to the care of the Jesuit order, determined the opening of a seminary in each diocese, and again encouraged the establishment of specifically Catholic schools. 404 In 1837, the third provincial council of Baltimore met, and at it the prelates developed a proposal for the papal curia to open four new dioceses, of which three were actually opened soon. 405 In 1840 the fourth provincial council met at Baltimore, in which thirteen prelates took part. 406 At this council, among other things, the prelates, by the fifth definition, instilled the need for the formation of “societies of moderation and abstinence from alcoholic drinks” among Catholics 407 and made an important decision regarding the management of church property. 408 In 1843, the fifth council met in Baltimore, at which sixteen prelates were already present. 409 At this council the strict Catholic view of marriage as an ecclesiastical act was canonically confirmed and the penalty of excommunication ipso facto was established against those who, after obtaining a civil divorce, consider themselves entitled to enter into a second marriage. 410 In view of the new increase in the Catholic population and the increasing needs for church government, the council made a proposal to the curia for a new division of dioceses, and as a result of this proposal, four new bishoprics were opened. 411 At the sixth provincial council in Baltimore, in 1846, there were twenty-three prelates present, who by their numbers sufficiently expressed the strength of the church organization which Roman Catholicism had taught in America. By the first resolution of the council, the prelates proclaimed, "with an ardent and unanimous voice," 412 the patroness of the United States, "the Blessed Virgin conceived without sin," 413 and submitted for approval the opening of three new bishoprics, which were opened in Buffalo, Albany and Clevedand. 414 In 1849, the seventh provincial council of Baltimore was appointed. It was a time of difficult trials for the head of Roman Catholicism, Pope Pius IX. Elected to the papal throne in 1846, he was praised for his liberalism by the revolutionary Italian party, and two years later he had to flee Rome to escape this very party. The Catholics of the United States felt the pope's distress with particular force, and they came up with the idea that the best refuge for the pope during revolutionary unrest could be the soil of the New World. In pursuance of this thought, the prelates of the United States wrote a letter to the pope, asking him to “honor Maryland with his sacred presence.” 415 But the far-sighted pope did not want to give his enemies a reason for the joyful proclamation of the resettlement of the papacy to America, which this temporary visit to the New World would undoubtedly have served, and he rejected the proposal of his faithful prelates. Although “deprived of the happiness of having as their chairman the successor of the prince of the apostles, the fathers of the seventh council of Baltimore wanted to show their lively sympathy by ordering a collection to be made in their dioceses for the denarius of Peter. This voluntary collection yielded about $26,000, which was transferred to the papal nuncio in Paris by the Archbishop of Baltimore.” 416 On the appointed day the council opened in the presence of twenty-five prelates. As at the previous council, the prelates devoted the first and second definitions to the question of the virgin birth, and declared that the veneration of the virgin birth was universal among both clergy and laity in the United States, and declared that "the prelates would with lively joy accept the dogmatic definition of this mystery on the part of the supreme pontiff, if he, in his wise judgment, considered this definition to be opportune." 417 These definitions were accepted by everyone unanimously, with the exception of one bishop of Richmond, 418 who so defended his dissenting opinion that it was included in the acts of the council. The Council also noted the continued growth of the church organization and introduced three new bishoprics and one vicariate for the opening, which were opened in 1850. 419 The Seventh Provincial Council of Baltimore serves as the final point of the second period of extraordinary growth of Roman Catholicism in America. This growth has especially assumed enormous proportions since the early forties. European emigration poured out in an unprecedented stream - hundreds of thousands of Roman Catholics arrived every year, seeking refuge in the New World from European unrest. Roman Catholic settlements grew with monstrous speed. Hitherto deserted areas were now quickly filled with Catholic parishes. Parts of extensive dioceses became heavier and required independent hierarchical administration. From here we see during this decade an almost continuous process of singling out and forming new bishoprics. An indispensable rubric in the definitions of each council during this time is the idea of ​​​​the opening of new episcopal sees, so that their number more than doubled during this period. In 1840 there were sixteen (16) dioceses, and in 1850 there were thirty-three (33). 420 The center of gravity of all these numerous hierarchical units for a long time served as one metropolitan diocese - Baltimore. All bishoprics constituted one province with Baltimore as the metropolis at its head. But over time, individual dioceses became so heavy that the center began to waver and the metropolitanate ceased to maintain balance. Hence, the inevitable fact is that among the bishops, those began to stand out that in their importance began to be equal to the metropolis, established in themselves the center of gravity of the district bishops and eo ipso became in the position of metropolitans. This process was already noticed by previous councils and, according to their ideas, two bishoprics, one after another, were elevated to the dignity of archbishoprics, namely Oregon in 1846 and St. Louis in 1847. 421 But this process found full legal expression in the representation of the seventh council. The prelates were fully aware of the stage that the church had reached and at which it required the localization of centers, and therefore they proposed the opening of three new metropolises, with the transfer of the hierarchical rights of the primary metropolis of Baltimore to them. The idea was approved by a papal decree of July 19, 1850, and thus by the beginning of the new decade the Roman Catholic Church already consisted of six metropolitan provinces, with metropolitan seats in the main centers of the country: Baltimore, Oregon, St. Louis, New York, Cincinnati and New Orleans. 422 With the opening of new metropolises, the Roman Catholic Church in the United States entered a new phase of its development. It ceased to be a province, which it had hitherto been, and became a national church, as far as this term refers to its prevalence throughout the country, with independent administrative centers. The new situation required enhanced organizing activity. The new metropolitans formed councils in their respective provinces to discuss the needs of their provincial churches. But the private activities of individual metropolitans required general guiding principles, on the basis of which private activities could be developed and carried out. Such principles have not yet been developed. The guiding definitions developed at the provincial Baltimore councils now did not satisfy the needs, since these definitions were essentially of a private provincial nature and their jurisdiction did not extend to the new metropolises, which received equal jurisdiction with Baltimore in their provinces. A higher body of ecclesiastical jurisdiction was required. Such a body could only be a general national council, and indeed in 1852 this general council was convened, which received the name of the first full council (Primum Plenarium Concilium), which was composed of all the prelates of the country. The site of the council was chosen to be the historical cradle of Roman Catholicism in America - Baltimore, and it was composed of six archbishops or metropolitans and twenty-six bishops. 423 The life of the church was so organized and presented such bright hopes for the future that the prelates of the council did not need to develop any special, radical definitions, and they, having established general guiding principles for the metropolises on the basis of previous councils, limited themselves to only a few definitions regarding other aspects of church life. Thus, with particular insistence, they confirmed the need for the founding of Catholic schools in order to isolate the Catholic population from the influence of Protestantism, and they solemnly condemned secret societies, especially Freemasonry, which was rapidly spreading in America. 424 Then they submitted for approval the opening of several new dioceses, and the elevation of San Francisco in California to the dignity of a metropolitan city, 425 “If here, the Catholic historian considers it necessary to note on this occasion, there were questions about dignities made attractive by honor, power or the riches of the land, then we could see in this development of the episcopate human foundations and motives of ambition. But in the United States the miter is only a terrible burden, without any consolations that ease it in other places; and the prelates are only venerable beggars, always stretching out their hand for the daily bread, for the means to erect those modest walls that form their cathedrals and churches. The new bishop must create every thing; he finds only a few priests scattered here and there, completely inadequate for a country where emigration periodically brings crowds of Irish and German Catholics who need to be protected, and still more children who need to be protected from the lures of error. He must build a church and a dwelling, establish a seminary and schools, and establish the faithful in the truth; to gather around oneself brothers and communities of sisters, to provide by continuous labor the means of living for these co-workers, to constantly travel on horseback or on foot, in the snow or in the rain, to preach at all hours, to receive confessors without rest, to visit the sick and everywhere to observe the preservation of the sacred structure of faith and morals. Such is the life of an American prelate destined to found a new diocese—a life of bodily weariness, like that of the humblest missionary, with all the responsibility of a bishop. Most often, such duties are accepted through obedience by those whom the holy seat considers courageous enough to accept them; and the new diocese soon sees the rise of churches and monasteries, the multiplication of clergy, and the presence of a priest in the later cuttings next to the pioneer. Such is the history of religion in America since the beginning of this century, and the future promises that, despite the trials of the last few years, this development will not cease." 426 But no matter how great the burdens of the actual service of the prelates of the Roman Catholic Church, they were not visible to the outside world. On the contrary, he saw only a brilliant assembly of prelates and naturally assumed a strong organization behind it, with all the benefits and hopes of power. The Protestant world, having given complete freedom to its enemy Roman Catholicism to develop and grow on the soil of the New World, did not imagine in it the power that it had managed to develop in half a century. Now it saw its mistake. Roman Catholicism daily grew into a powerful organization, before which fragmented Protestantism involuntarily felt its weakness. Consciousness of weakness often leads to fanaticism. Protestantism has always been fanatical about Roman Catholicism in America, from the very beginning of the history of the United States. Political circumstances suppressed this fanaticism and even legally killed it. But in fact, he continued to live and showed his fiery tongue at every opportunity. When, in the early forties, Roman Catholicism began to grow especially rapidly due to the emigration that had surged since that time, Protestantism was alarmed. Considering America its property, Protestantism saw with horror how Catholic emigration spread the hated faith throughout the country. His dormant fanaticism awoke and, supported by the spirit of narrow native exclusivity, according to which America exists only for Americans, 427 turned into open hostility not only to Roman Catholicism, but also to everything alien and alien. In the 40s, the “natives” party (Nativism) was formed, which led a fierce campaign against emigrants in general and Catholics in particular. In Philadelphia, this movement was expressed by open riots of the crowd, which burned Roman Catholic churches and plundered monasteries. 428 The movement was ominous, and although at that time it did not assume particularly large proportions, it still made it clear what furious fanaticism lived in the heart of Protestantism. Having quenched the first impulses of rage, Protestant fanaticism subsided for a while and the “native” movement ceased, but only to flare up with renewed vigor at the first opportunity. The incident did not take long to happen. Roman Catholicism continued to grow and develop, the newcomer Catholic population multiplied annually by hundreds of thousands, and the church organization declared itself with increasing splendor in the increasing frequency of councils of prelates. The First National Council was a brilliant expression of the high phase of development of Roman Catholicism in the country, which it achieved in an incredibly short time, and this success of a mortal enemy could not help but sting Protestant jealousy and bitterness. Fanaticism had awakened again and was only waiting for a spark to ignite. The spark for this was the visit of the papal nuncio to the United States. In 1853 the pope, desirous of demonstrating his interest in the growth of Roman Catholicism in America, sent one of his most illustrious representatives, Archbishop Bedini, papal nuncio to Brazil, to visit the United States, furnishing him with a handwritten letter of recommendation and credentials to the President in Washington. 429 The Nuncio was kindly received by the President, Piers, and made a solemn review of the Roman Catholic Church in various cities and localities of the country. 430 This trip of the papal nuncio was the spark that ignited fanaticism, especially since in America by this time a lot of combustible, purely political material had accumulated. The European revolutions of 1848 brought whole gangs of German and Italian revolutionaries to America. They were the first to begin agitation against the nuncio of the papacy they hated, and with the famous Italian reformer Gavazzi at their head, they began to pursue the nuncio, arousing popular passions against him, as a mortal enemy of the American republic and freedom. The Nuncio went west and the revolutionaries followed him. Catholics everywhere enthusiastically received the envoy of the “Vicar of Christ,” and this inflamed the anger of their enemies even more. Having not yet had time to arouse public opinion, the Italian revolutionaries called for help from the German infidels who had built their nest in the western states. The German press thundered with curses against the nuncio 431 and managed to raise the fanaticism of the crowd. One evening a crowd of five hundred people intended to attack the house where the nuncio was staying. A heavy police patrol met the crowd and a bloody clash ensued in which eighteen people were killed. 432 The rebels could not stand it and dispersed. In 1854 the nuncio left the country, but fanaticism did not follow him. It began to spread among the masses. Unrest began in New York, preachers spoke out and began to destroy the pope and all Catholics in the squares. A secret society of “Know-Nothings” was formed, 433 which, through secret means, began to incite the crowd against the Roman Catholics, especially the Irish, who began to successfully compete in labor and art with the native American population. 434 The base instincts of the American crowd (mob), the most terrible and bloodthirsty crowd that can be falsely imagined, played out. A procession of armed gangs began, which tried in every possible way to provoke hostility on the part of the Irish Catholics by insulting them in order to open the massacre. 435 In the town of Newark, neighboring New York, a procession rushed at a Catholic church in broad daylight and destroyed it under the pretext that a shot had been fired at the procession. 436 Then riots spread throughout the country, and a ferocious crowd began to rule, which began to burn and plunder Catholic churches and monasteries everywhere. New York, Boston, Brooklyn, St. Louis, Louisville and other cities became places of ugly scenes and mob rule. A certain Orr appeared as the leader of the movement, calling himself “the angel Gabriel,” called to destroy Catholicism. In New Hampshire, a mob destroyed and destroyed two Catholic churches, one of which was blown up with gunpowder. In Maine, a mob led by “the angel Gabriel” broke into the doors of a church and swept away the altar, pulpit, crosses and icons. The Bishop of Portland was about to lay the foundation of a new church in place of the destroyed one, but a crowd attacked the site of the consecration and dispersed everyone. 437 In Louisville, during the elections of 1854 and 1855, religious fanaticism merged with political fanaticism. The Know-Nothings agitated against Catholics as aliens and papist servants, setting Catholic houses on fire and killing residents. The crowd even approached the cathedral to set fire to and destroy it, and the cathedral was saved only by Bishop Spalding handing over the keys to the city mayor. 438 But the mob did not stop at destroying Catholic property. She extended her rampage to representatives of the papal hierarchy. An example is the sad fate of the Jesuit John Babst. A venerable Jesuit who served as pastor of the Catholic Church in Ellsworth, Maine, asked schools not to force Catholic children to read the Protestant translation of the Bible. The teachers agreed, but the school committee intervened in this matter and ordered teachers to force Catholic children to read the Protestant Bible under pain of expulsion. The Catholics appealed to the court against such injustice, but this inflamed the rage of the fanatics towards the Jesuit Babst so much that a huge meeting gathered, which decided, for the troubles caused to the city by its restless disposition, “to supply it with a whole pair of new clothes, which cannot be found in any tailor’s shop.” 439 The resolution was adopted unanimously and the crowd did not hesitate to carry it out. On October 14, 1854, Jesuit Babst, who lived in the town of Bangor, according to custom, went to Ellsworth to celebrate mass on Sunday. The crowd waiting for him was just waiting for this. In the evening, a crowd surrounded the house in which the Jesuit was, grabbed him and dragged him out into the street, put him on bars and carried him around the city with all kinds of insults and ridicule. Finally, having stripped him naked, they doused him with liquid resin and rolled him in feathers, in which position they left the ill-fated Jesuit. 440 The riot of the crowd finally became so unbearable that it aroused the indignation of even the Protestant population, which took measures to stop it. But the ideas of the know-nothing society managed to spread so much that a special anti-Catholic party was formed, which began to exert influence in politics. At the elections she fielded many members who acted in the legislative assemblies in this anti-Catholic spirit. Their influence was especially strong in the New York State Legislature, which made several anti-Catholic resolutions, such as that no donation for religious or charitable purposes could be considered legal unless it came under the authority of trustees, thereby denying the authority of bishops over these donations. 441 The Massachusetts Legislative Assembly, under the influence of rumors spread by the anti-Catholic party regarding the immoral life in Catholic monasteries, appointed a special committee to audit all monasteries - male and female, which directly violated the rights of the Roman Catholic Church to independence, and the audit itself was accompanied by many indecencies on the part of the committee members. 442 The troubled period laid a heavy burden on the Roman Catholic Church and naturally slowed down its growth; but he still could not stop him. On the contrary, from among the most evil things, in some respects there was a benefit for her. Thus, the madness of the “know-nothings” aroused in many a feeling of sympathy for the persecuted Catholics and as a result, in the words of a Catholic historian, “thousands of kind, sensitive people entered the true fold.” 443 In addition, as if in revenge on the destroyers, Catholics in subsequent years erected and founded, one after another, such majestic cathedrals as had never existed before. In 1855, the majestic cathedrals in Pittsburgh and Buffalo were solemnly consecrated; in 1858 the foundation of the Cathedral of St. Patrick's in New York, the best church on the mainland; in 1857, three new dioceses were opened, 444 and in 1858, Pope Pius IX elevated the Baltimore see to the degree of primacy. 445 But in general this period was destined to be a time of all kinds of trials, not only for the Roman Catholic Church, but for the whole country. As soon as the country calmed down from the rampage of fanatical freemen, fate prepared the most difficult test for it. In 1861, an internecine war between the North and the South opened and filled the country with the destructive horrors of fratricide. During the war, much property of the Roman Catholic Church was lost along with public property, looted and burned by the warring parties, and in addition Roman Catholicism lost many of its members, since the armies were predominantly composed of Irish Catholics. 446 The trials of the war were difficult for the entire country, but it emerged from it experienced and renewed. She renewed the people's consciousness of their organic unity and killed separatism, both political and religious. The ideas of separatist democrats and anti-Catholic know-nothings were driven out of the country by the blows of war. The idea of ​​their national unity began to quickly develop and strengthen among the people, and this idea, as we will see later, gave new strength to the Roman Catholic Church of the United States. After the fratricidal war, the country found itself in a weakened and ruined state, both materially and morally. The excessive tension of passions during the war has now turned into apathy bordering on despair. Roman Catholicism alone did not lose heart, and as soon as the deadly thunder of weapons ceased, it began its organizational activities again. The war left him a legacy of destroyed churches, ruined dioceses, orphaned families, and helpless cripples. Some of the southern dioceses almost disappeared from the face of the earth. 447 The Church had a difficult job to do - to examine its condition, weigh the harm done to it and determine the new conditions of its position. For such activity, individual and scattered efforts of individual provinces would not be enough; collective efforts and the collective meaning of the entire church were necessary. And so, indeed, a new general council was appointed, convened in 1866 in Baltimore under the name “the second complete council of Baltimore.” 448 This council, both in the special conditions of the position of the church and in the importance of its significance for it, marks a new era in the history of Roman Catholicism in the United States, and as such deserves detailed study. Never before had Roman Catholicism appeared before a country in such splendor and power as at this council, and it was not only a revelation of the vitality of the Catholic community in the country, but also gave encouragement to the most weakened country. “The country has just emerged from a terrible crisis in which the very ship of state was torn from its moorings. House rebelled against house and brother's hands rose against brother. The sects were fragmented and were still in confusion and disorder, contributing to the widening of the chasm which threatened to swallow up the life of the nation. Half the country was devastated and ruined; the broken people bent under the double weight of the memory of the past, which could not return again, and the thought of the future, which seemed hopeless. On the other side was the fatigue and exhaustion that follows extreme stress, and the thirst for peace and tranquility after so much bloodshed and so much trouble. Everyone was glad to welcome at least some force that would be able to survive this terrible struggle - intact and undefeated. When, therefore, the Catholic Church appeared before the eyes of the people, fully armed with undiminished strength and unbroken unity, then thousands who until recently would have looked at this revelation of her power with jealous envy, now greeted her with joy, as a messenger of good omens. It must also be recognized that during the war the people saw this church more, and having learned about it better, they began to love it more. Throughout the country there was not a village in which some brave warrior - not a Catholic - would not praise its heroic daughters, who during the battles stood nearby to stop the bleeding of the wounded." 449 And indeed, if the first full council was the reason for the explosion of anti-Catholic passions in the Protestant population, then the second was the reason for Protestantism to fully recognize its weakness in comparison with the invariably united and indestructible Roman Catholicism. And this was a great moral victory for the latter. From this time on, a new era of unprecedented prosperity and progress began for Roman Catholicism, and it began to grow even faster in its numbers and strengthen its organization. By the end of the century of American independence, it was already such a majestic building that it required a special crowned head, and it was given to it by Pius IX in 1875, when he elevated the Archbishop of New York John McClossky to the dignity of a cardinal, 450 and raised four archbishoprics to the dignity of Metropolitan seats. 451 The history of this era has as its main grain of development the second full council, which weighed the vital forces of the church and legally determined the plan for its subsequent development, and therefore the best indicator of the current state of Roman Catholicism in the United States is precisely this council, which therefore itself requires detailed study. But before proceeding to this study, we think it necessary to summarize the features of the legal position of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States, thanks to which Roman Catholicism has been able to grow and develop unimpeded, both in its numerical composition and in its ecclesiastical organization. When the federal constitution, and soon, under its moral pressure, most of the private constitutions of the individual states, placed religious matters outside state jurisdiction and thus separated church and state, then for Roman Catholicism this was tantamount to liberating it from the slavery and oppression in which it had been before the declaration of independence. Refusing any interference in religious affairs, the state left their own internal development and management to their own church centers and organizations. This order of things turned out to be extremely fruitful for Roman Catholicism and it is to it that it owes most of all its success and rapid growth in the country. His liberation from state jurisdiction, which was constantly expressed in negative and hostile decrees towards him, gave him the opportunity to quickly grow in number, and openly and unhindered to unite the surging wave of Catholic emigrants into one integral body of the church. And the complete non-interference of the state in the affairs of the church made it possible for the church hierarchy to grow and develop completely free from any external influences, solely according to the internal organic needs and direction of the head of Roman Catholicism - the pope. By renouncing all jurisdiction in the field of religion, the state thereby transferred jurisdiction over the Roman Catholic Church to itself and its head, the pope, i.e., it established an order of things that is considered ideal by Roman Catholicism, to the implementation of which it constantly strives and because of which it wages a continuous struggle with European states. Thanks to this order of things, the Roman Catholic Church in the United States has acquired such freedom in its life and activities that it does not enjoy in any European country. “There is no part of the civilized world,” says Bishop Spalding, in which there would at present be more favorable conditions for Catholics to do great and eternal work for the benefit of the church, her children and the century, than here in the United States, Pius IX, as they say, used to say that only in America was he a real pope. Probably nowhere else did he have greater freedom of action. In the appointment of bishops, in the formation of dioceses, in the approval and proclamation of laws for the direction of ecclesiastical discipline, the pope encounters no obstacles in this country. Bishops also have complete freedom in the exercise of their high office. The Levites, who are destined for the service of the altar, are completely left to their hands for preparation and education through the system that only seems to them most suitable for the formation of the perfect man of God; both public opinion and the customs of the people assist them in their efforts to entrust only the worthy with the care of souls.” 452 This complete freedom of the Roman Catholic Church is reflected in every line of the history of its development that we have traced, and, moreover, to its full benefit. Its hierarchy is created according to the internal organic need for growth, and the Pope appoints the first bishop with an authoritative hand, without entering into any conditions or negotiations with the government of the country, which then immediately declared itself out of any connection with this matter. Then the pope completely freely elevates the first bishopric to the level of metropolitanate, while in Europe the troops destroyed his eternal seat. In 1809, the supreme ruler of Roman Catholicism in Europe was taken into captivity, but for the United States he continued to be pope and in captivity signed decrees by which he created a number of new bishoprics, and these decrees have full legislative force overseas. 453 The rapid development of the church creates a need for collective management of it, and so bishops freely gather at councils for general discussion of the needs of the church and make decisions that do not require any external, extra-church approval or approval, except for the approval of the supreme head of the church - the pope. In 1849, the pope in Europe is forced to flee from the eternal city of his historical seat, and the bishops of the United States peacefully and freely gather in regular councils and offer the pope himself refuge among themselves. 454 During his exile, the pope creates several metropolitanates, which make the hitherto provincial church national, receives from America the generous denarius of Peter and moral support in the person of the prelates of the Baltimore Cathedral, who raised a solemn voice in his favor and issued a conciliar letter to the clergy and people, in which the supreme rights of the pope are affirmed and proven. 455 In 1852, the prelates, completely freely, according to the internal needs of church life, gather at a full or national council, freely discuss the needs of the church, develop decrees and disciplinary rules, which receive legislative force solely with the approval of the pope. Finally, the pope elevated the first metropolitanate to the level of primacy, convened a second full council, which developed independent canon law for the church in the United States, affirmed the cardinalship - all this completely freely, without any interference from the civil government of the country, and moreover, at a time when in Europe all of his activities met with opposition from the government, which soon turned into open persecution, expressed in the famous German Kulturkampf. And during the last five years, when the persecution of Roman Catholicism took place in Europe, either in the form of a cultural struggle in Germany or in the form of a persecution of the Jesuits in France, in the United States, Roman Catholicism continued to grow and develop widely and unhindered, the Jesuits calmly teach in their numerous colleges, bishops gather at councils and the pope with an authoritative hand, freely appoints bishops and governs the entire body of the church. The state, by virtue of its legal separation from religion, does not present any obstacle to the pope's sovereign control of the church, and provides general assistance and patronage to the church itself, as a community of its own citizens. In view of this, it is clear that the legal principle of separation of church and state is important for the successful development of Roman Catholicism in the United States. And the late Pope Pius IX was absolutely right when, amidst the difficulties that surrounded him in Europe, he exclaimed: “The United States is the only country where I am truly pope in the eyes of the government.” 456 The Second Complete Council of Baltimore was the last and complete expression of the life, strength, organization and success of Roman Catholicism in the United States, and is therefore interesting not only for the canon law it produced, but for its very external composition. It was convened by Archbishop Spalding of Baltimore on October 7, 1866. 457 This council, in the consciousness of all Roman Catholics in the United States, was to be the highest expression of the Roman Catholic Church in the country, and due to its importance, even a question arose in society regarding its very name. “The name plenary,” says the Catholic publicist, sounds strange to some ears and has caused discussion in the public press. In ordinary conversation this cathedral is often given the name national, and this would probably be its official name also, if not for the foresight of the sacred seat. Rome, illuminated by the wisdom from above and rich in the experience of centuries, looks upon the tendency towards nationalism in the church as one of the greatest dangers that can follow, even almost as the precursor of a schism. When he intended to propose to the American prelates the convening of a council of all the bishops of the various provinces of the country, the question immediately arose about his official title. I didn’t like the national one, the general one was too broad, the provincial one was too limited. A learned church historian suggested the name Plenarium, a title given to the general councils of the African Church in the fifth century, councils which became famous for the genius of Augustine and for their clear condemnation of Pelagianism. This name was approved. It avoids the narrowness of nationalism, while it fully expresses the idea of ​​a complete council of all the prelates of the American Church.” 458 “The purpose of the full council is clearly indicated by the sacred seat. Strictly speaking, provincial councils could present all necessary legislation. But there would be a danger of loss of uniformity. Even in relation to the best people, the elderly, the truth is justified that where there are many people, there are many minds. In order to prevent this diversity of views from being too sharply put into practice, it was considered wise to randomly call all the bishops together, so that by united council such measures could be taken as would maintain the American church united not only in faith and essential points of doctrine, but even in the most important among secondary subjects of the latter kind. There is no need to dwell on the benefits of such uniformity. A full council thus has in mind the needs of the entire American church and does for it the same thing as a provincial council does for one ecclesiastical province. Canon law is of necessity limited to general terms, and cannot be applied equally everywhere. Most of it even consists of definitions given for special localities, under special conditions, so that only their principle can find universal application. It often happens that general rules must be modified to suit other needs, other times and other circumstances. This is one of the first responsibilities of local cathedrals. They propose and put into effect such regulations as their wisdom and experience may indicate as necessary to carry into effect the actual spirit of the general law. They do not contradict, much less cancel, canonical rules; on the contrary, they strengthen observance of the canons.” 459 The meeting of the council was scheduled for two weeks. If the council had limited itself only to this time, then naturally it would not have been able to carry out its important tasks. The archbishop understood this and tried to develop a preliminary plan and enable the council to better and more fully express its legislative meaning. He sent this plan back at the beginning of 1866 to archbishops, bishops, heads of monastic orders and everyone who had the right to attend the council. He then convened a meeting of theologians to carry out preparatory work and research. They were taken both from monastic orders and from the ordinary clergy; many of them were professors of theology or canon law; some held high positions or were famous for their learning. This learned council (coetus) met daily while the greater part of its members could remain in Baltimore, and during this time all the main points were carefully examined; and proper corrections have been made. Some of the learned theologians, not being able to attend the council in person, sent their written works, so that, in the words of a Catholic publicist, “the best talents of the country performed this initial work.” 460 The result of this preparatory work was a whole volume of various legislative decrees and decrees of the church. She undoubtedly facilitated the work of the members of the council, and even “it would be difficult to understand how without this preparation the very work of the council could have been completed completely.” 461 The council was composed of a majestic assembly of prelates and representatives of theological science, since each prelate had the right to have learned theologians with him: the chairman - four theologians, the archbishops - three, and the bishops - two theologians. The meetings of the council opened with a solemn procession, in which took part seven (7) archbishops, thirty-seven (37) bishops, one (1) apostolic administrator, two (2) mitred abbots, twenty-two (22) vicars general, nineteen (19) superiors of monastic orders, thirty-one (31) officials, seven (7) rectors of seminaries and ninety-three (93) theologian. 462 “Rarely has Rome itself witnessed a more majestic assembly, and even more rarely so remarkable in its character,” notes the historian. Even in terms of numbers, this council was one of the greatest assemblies of prelates since the Council of Trent.” 463 More than forty thousand people gathered to watch the cathedral procession. 464 Along the streets through which the procession passed, there was hardly a house that was not decorated. “It was undoubtedly one of the grandest and most beautiful Catholic demonstrations that has ever been seen in this land of freedom, where all sects and communities meet. The Council presented one of those striking lessons that the common sense of Americans will not forget and which will little by little lead them to the understanding that where there is unity there is life.” 465 Cathedral work was carried out according to a strictly drawn up and specific plan, according to the principle of division of labor. All members of the council were divided into seven congregations, between which the material to be discussed was distributed. Each congregation had a bishop as its chairman, and in addition had a vice-president and a church notary. The congregations had to discuss among themselves, in a preliminary manner, the proposed measures. The result of these discussions, collected by the notary, with votes and reasons for and against, in case of disagreement, was then presented to the bishops. The latter, in turn, held private meetings, where they dealt only with issues that had already been discussed by theologians. Secretaries kept detailed minutes of everything that happened at these meetings. The issue was then transferred to the general meeting and finally presented to the meetings of the council, where the definitions received their final form and sanction, making them binding. The meetings took place in the cathedral and consisted of a solemn mass, after which the definitions were read and proclaimed as law, which only needed the approval of the pope. 466 “As for the very order of reasoning, the bishops found it best to adopt the same order as usually occurs in the legislative assemblies of the United States. Everyone had the right to offer whatever he wanted, as long as he did it in writing and in Latin. But a question proposed by a member could not be the subject of discussion unless another prelate joined with the first in demanding attention to the subject. No one had the right to evade this plan, as well as the department that was the subject of discussion. In all other respects, not only was complete freedom of opinion granted, but it was even encouraged, as long as the speakers did not go beyond the limits of decency. If anyone crossed them, or uselessly protracted his reasoning, then each member could demand a call to order; The promoter was obliged to monitor the implementation of the rules of order, and in cases of doubt, the final decision belonged to the chairman. All members were required to attend meetings and, under pain of punishment, could not leave the meeting before the end of work. 467 All material to be discussed by the council was divided into twelve sections (titulus), which were distributed among seven congregations, and some congregations were engaged in discussing two sections with similar content. These departments, with the addition of two new ones developed by the cathedral itself, were included in their final form in the acts of the cathedral, called Decreta. 468 The collection of acts was published in an elegant printed book, which soon required several new editions. “The prelates of the United States legislated with such prudence, with such perfect unity of thought and feeling, that their churches have since had in the collection of their definitions a complete code of laws.” 469 In addition to two complete editions, for general use the acts were published in an abbreviated form, and in this form they serve as a textbook in Catholic seminaries on canon law. From this fact alone one can judge, and the Catholic publicist is quite convinced, that “the second complete council of Baltimore is destined for a memorable place in the history of Catholicism in the United States.” 470 There is no doubt that this council created complete canon law as applied to the particular conditions of the Catholic Church in America, accurately defined its dogmatic and legal relationship to Rome, and fully expressed the very conditions of its position in the United States, both in relation to their government and in relation to the heterodox churches and communities existing in this country. The first section, consisting of seven chapters, is devoted to dogmatic questions, and as such is not of particular interest, constituting the usual statement of the faith of the church. 471 But even here there are already several features that are caused by the particular conditions of the position of the Roman Catholic Church in America. The third chapter is devoted to the question of Holy Scripture. The Roman Catholic Church, through its historical practice, has proven its opposition to the popularization of the Bible, denying the need for its translation into the popular language and the very reading of it by the people. 472 In America, on the contrary, she encountered a new fact, namely, that the Bible was considered the most popular and popular book, without which Christianity itself is conceivable. Under such circumstances, to deprive the people of the opportunity to read the Bible would mean not only to place oneself in the eyes of other Christian communities as an enemy of Christianity, but also to deprive oneself of all hope of the possibility of conversion from other confessions. The prelates of the council fully understood this situation and, in the chapter on the Holy Scriptures, spoke out for the need to give the people the Bible in a language they could understand, the so-called Duvey translation (Duacensis versio), which was adopted by the prelates of previous councils. 473 It is remarkable that the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide itself, in its response to the Archbishop of Baltimore reviewing the acts of the council, not only did not express opposition to such a resolution, but, on the contrary, itself confirmed the necessity of it. She instructs the archbishop to again compare the various English editions of the Bible, to use other Catholic translations, if any, so that it would be possible to have in English the correct and correct text of all the books of Holy Scripture, which should be distributed throughout all the dioceses of America. 474 The sixth chapter establishes the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Mother of God, “which Pope Pius IX solemnly defined, with the rejoicing of the entire ecumenical Catholic world, which respectfully and willingly listened and accepted it as the voice of Peter and the proclamation (oraculum) of Christ himself.” 475 Then the prelates, in determining the true doctrine, necessarily encountered a mass of false ones, which abound in America. Therefore, as natural as it was for them to affirm the Catholic doctrine, it was just as natural to deny and condemn the non-Catholic, especially in its extreme manifestations. They devoted the seventh chapter to the question of wandering errors (De erroribus serpentibus), in which they condemn both the general principle of wandering sectarianism and its particular manifestations in the form of indifferentism, which considers all religions and churches equal; Unitarianism, which denies the deity of Jesus Christ; universalism, which denies the eternity of torment after death; transcendentalism and pantheism, which “impiously dethrone God himself,” and finally in the form of the most characteristic fermentations in America of magnetism and spiritualism. 476 Spiritualism is especially widespread in America, and the prelates devoted a more extensive paragraph to its condemnation. They also provide an explanation for his phenomena. “It seems well researched,” they say, that most of those amazing phenomena that are said to be produced in spiritualistic circles (in circulis spiritismi) are either fictitious, or produced by the picaresque art of the performers, or must be attributed to the imagination of persons called mediums (media), and the gullibility (credulitati) of the spectators, or finally to some deft manual trick, such as is common among magicians. However, the prelates add, it should not seem beyond doubt that some phenomena respond to satanic intervention, since they can hardly be sufficiently explained in any other way. And it does not seem surprising if in these new days, in which dangerous times are approaching, such an ancient enemy of the human race is again trying to introduce the art of ancient magic, under other forms, however, more convenient for the present state of the world, for human destruction.” 477 Having then expounded the doctrine of good and evil spirits, the prelates ask what is surprising if the devil begins to again establish his kingdom among a society where “there are such a large number of those who are called Christians, but they themselves have never been washed by baptism and therefore have not passed from darkness to light and have not known Christ?” 478 In conclusion, they exhort “those who are in Christ not to favor spiritualism in any way, even indirectly, and to be present in its circles even out of curiosity. And let those who enter the house of the devil beware, lest they be deceived by his machinations and fall into his power.” 479 The second section has as its subject the hierarchy and government of the church, 480 and the first chapter is naturally devoted to the head of the church - the Pope. The question of subordination to the pope has a double interest for the American church - ecclesiastical and political. In the latter respect, the dependence of the Roman Catholics in the United States on the Pope constantly aroused and arouses public suspicion of their true attachment to the republican government, so that in some states, as we saw above, Catholics were required to swear an oath to deny their subordination to “foreign ecclesiastical authority” upon entering public office. But the prelates of the council already felt such strength that they were no longer afraid of public opinion and solemnly proclaimed their filial allegiance to the pope, whom “Christ established as the head and center of his entire church.” 481 They declare with what filial obedience they always accept instructions from the holy seat and, together with Pope Pius IX, condemn the thoughts and actions of those “who do not attach importance (parvipendunt) to what is not expressly defined in the Catholic faith, and hold opinions and make proposals that are completely alien to the general feeling of Catholics and are even scandalous and offensive to pious ears.” 482 The prelates then even insist on the necessity of temporal power for the pope, as an independent sovereign in an independent state. For, they repeat the Apostolic Epistle of March 26, 1860, “When the Catholic Church, founded and established by the Lord Christ to provide for the eternal salvation of men, by virtue of its divine institution had attained to the form of a perfect society, it must also enjoy the liberty of not being subject to any civil authority in its sacred government. And since, in order to act freely, she needed those advantages that were consistent with the conditions and necessities of the times, therefore, in the council of the special providence of God, it was decreed that when the Roman Empire was dissolved and divided into many kingdoms, the Roman high priest, whom Christ had appointed as the head and center of his entire church, should receive the civil dominion (principatum). Therefore, it was decreed by the wise counsel of God that, given the multitude and variety of temporal rulers, the supreme high priest should enjoy political freedom, which is so necessary for the unhindered exercise of his spiritual power, authority and jurisdiction over the whole world (toto orbe). It was also clear that in the event of any doubt arising in the Catholic world, perhaps at the suggestion of the civil authorities or the passion of the parties (partium studio), it would be possible, for the common good, to turn to that seat to which every church must come due to its primacy of authority.” 483 Having quoted these words of the papal epistle, the prelates, for their part, declare that they declare with their mind and heart their agreement with them. 484 Having then confirmed the dual right of bishops to teach and govern the Christian world in unity with the Roman pontiff, 485 the council especially dwells on the conciliar form of government of the church, and, in accordance with the inspiration of the Council of Trent, decrees that provincial councils should be convened every three years throughout the United States, “for, according to the conviction of the prelates, in these assemblies of unity the best and most effective healing can be found against the evils which beset all parts of the Church, when the pastors of the dioceses unite their wisdom to adopt the measures most suitable to secure the salvation of souls.” 486 The prelates motivate the need for frequent conciliar meetings by the variability of conditions and circumstances of life and activity of the church and repeat the following words of Pope Benedict XIV: “The morals of people change over time, the circumstances of things change, and what was useful at one time later becomes useless and even disastrous. The duty of a prudent prelate, unless he is otherwise obliged by a higher law, is to conform to the time and place, and to abolish what was in use in ancient times, when he judges in the Lord that it will be more useful for the diocese entrusted to him.” 487 In addition, the prelates recommend that diocesan or diocesan synods should be held as often as possible. 488 If the length of the diocese does not make it possible for the priests to meet annually, then the bishop must convene a synod at least after every provincial or full council to proclaim the decrees and ensure their observance. Meanwhile, the place of the synod, at least in part, can be taken by church congresses (collationes), organized in the districts. The prelates express the desire that such conventions should meet in cities four times a year, and at least once a year in such rural districts where it is difficult for priests to meet. 489 The third section treats of "church persons" and the first chapter is devoted to the question of "metropolitans", who, in accordance with the usual tendency of Catholicism towards centralization, are given the right of appeal by priests to the actions of their immediate bishops. 490 When determining the rights and advantages of the metropolitan at the council, a tendency towards decentralization slipped through, and the prelates passed in silence the indicated right of appeal and intervention of the metropolitan in the administration of bishops. But the Roman Curia immediately noticed this omission, and to the three points defining the rights of metropolitans (about reporting to the holy seat about those bishops who do not comply with the laws of residence, about convening provincial councils and about presenting the cross), added two new ones, according to which he is given the right: to make up for what is omitted due to the negligence of bishops in cases determined by law, and to accept appeals from decisions bishops. 491 The manner of electing bishops is then established (p. III), which is as follows: every three years each bishop sends to his metropolitan and the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide a list of persons whom he considers worthy of the bishopric, with a detailed statement of the qualities that distinguish them. When a see becomes vacant, the bishops of the province meet in a synod, or in any assembly at all, and discuss the aptitude of the candidates presented by each of them. After a secret study, three names are sent to Rome with protocols of election. According to this idea, the pope appoints one to the see and elevates him to the dignity of bishop. This order has existed everywhere since 1861. 492 Having then devoted several chapters to questions about the life and work of the clergy and a special chapter (p. V) to preaching, which is extremely important in America, where Protestantism reduces all church life to brilliant preaching, the prelates dwell with particular care on the question of spiritual education. Previous councils had already tried to establish seminaries in each diocese, but by the time of this council many of the dioceses still did not have seminaries. Therefore, the prelates express the desire that, if it is no longer possible to establish them everywhere, then at least each metropolitan province should have its own seminary, for the maintenance of which all its bishops should pool their resources. 493 The prelates distinguish two departments of education: the minor seminary or praeparatorium, where boys who satisfy the conditions prescribed by the Council of Trent are admitted, 494 and the great seminary (seminaruim major), where the clergy receive dogmatic and moral theology, canon law, hermeneutics and sacred eloquence. If a seminary serves as a general institution for a whole province, the study should not be limited to merely the elementary ecclesiastical sciences, but the instruction should include a full course of exegesis and Oriental languages, as well as the latest systems of philosophy, so expounded that the pupils can solve all the difficulties and objections presented by modern unbelief. “For now, say the prelates, we no longer have to fight against the heresies and often refuted errors of the ancients, but against new opponents - unbelievers, and moreover pagan than Christian, who care neither about God nor about the divine, and yet are very educated (cultissimis) and intelligent (ingeniosis), who preach that everything in heaven or on earth should be measured by reason (ratione mitienda dictitant), and thus they flatter the pride rooted in human nature and seduce those who do not guard against danger. Such, if the truth cannot convince them, should at least close their mouths (os obstruendum est), so that they do not seduce the inexperienced with the empty sound of their words.” 495 The prelates conclude their definitions on spiritual education with the requirement for strict moral discipline for pupils, as the best decoration of education, and the admission of the German language in provinces with a predominant German population. 496 The question of church property is of great importance in the life and work of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States. Its property status gives it special greatness in the country compared to other confessions and often brings it into conflict with the state. The Council devotes an entire section to this issue (Titulus IV); Due to its importance, we devote a separate chapter to it below, and therefore we will limit ourselves here only to pointing out that the council insists on the complete right of the church to dispose of church property, denying any interference by civil authority. 497 The next section is devoted to the question of the sacraments. In addition to the usual and general definition regarding the meaning and performance of the sacraments, the council was faced with many specific questions caused by the local conditions of the country. Thus, in considering the sacrament of baptism, the question arose about the validity of baptism performed by Protestant sects. Most of them look at baptism as a simple ceremony, “which has no significance for the salvation of the soul,” and therefore is often performed carelessly. In view of this, the question arose of how to look at such baptism when Protestants converted to Catholicism. “From here, those whom the special grace of God recalls and leads away from their camps should almost always be rebaptized. However, not everyone baptized by heretics should be rebaptized. On each occasion, the priest must enter into a detailed study of all the conditions of the baptism performed on the convert, and only then perform the sacrament again when the invalidity of the previous baptism is completely obvious.” 498 When considering the sacrament of the Eucharist, the question arose about the material for it, and especially about wine. America is just beginning to engage in grape culture and is still completely dependent on Europe for the production of wines. But since one cannot be sure of the integrity and purity of wines imported from Europe, the prelates express a desire to found a special community in Florida, which should be entrusted with special care for the preparation of materials for the performance of various sacraments - wine, oil, etc. This community may also keep beekeepers and supply the various dioceses with clean wax candles. Meanwhile, they warn priests to use for the Eucharist wines that are usually sold under the name Porta, Sherry, Madeira, Malaga and rather choose Bordeaux, Sauternes, Catawba, Isabella and others less susceptible to alteration or counterfeiting, and about “the integral nature of which there is no sufficient reason to doubt. However, it must be suggested that the wine necessary for the sacrifice be obtained from the most valid producers, who must be Catholics and of known honesty; and since at the present time, when cultivation of vineyards is beginning almost everywhere and there is a large supply of real wine, it can be achieved all the more easily that no excuse for negligence in such an important matter can be made.” 499 The prelates devote an extensive chapter to the sacrament of repentance, which so often confuses Protestants, and in the chapter on indulgences they try to carefully establish and clarify their real meaning, as the right of the church to release from temporary punishment for sins. 500 “Let the preachers of the divine word teach this to the faithful people, and let them not confuse the true and established dogmas of the church with the opinions of theologians. Let them instill this so firmly and accurately and clarify it so sensibly that the faithful can easily refute the absurd and often repeated complaints (cavillationes) of the heretics, many of whom, either out of ignorance, and even more out of malice, daily attack (debacebantur) this teaching and custom of the church.” 501 In the question of marriage there are also several peculiar features caused by the local conditions of the church. The prelates condemn the teaching of free love widespread in America, and even more so those who “want to introduce unclean polygamy again. Such people come together like monkeys, animals that have no spirit.” 502 In view of the well-known ease of the American view of marriage, the prelates with particular persistence affirm the true teaching of the church and strictly rebuke contrary teachings in their pastoral letters to the clergy and people. “We remind (the true doctrine of the church), they say, to strengthen our solemn exhortation to our flock not to listen to the false and derogatory theories on the subject of marriage, which are boldly exposed by the enemies of the church. According to these theories, marriage is a simple civil contract, subject to the administration of the civil authority, and from which the offended or dissatisfied party can free himself by divorce, so as to be able to enter into new transactions. This stands in obvious contradiction to the words of Christ: what God has joined together, let no man separate. As the guardian of St. God's law, the Church condemns this false theory, which would lead to consistent polygamy, no less contrary to the unity and stability of Christian marriage than the joint polygamy that, to the embarrassment of Christianity, is found within our borders. No state law may authorize divorce so as to permit the divorced parties to enter into new transactions; and any such new transaction concluded during the lifetime of the parties so divorced involves the crime of adultery. We point out with regret the scandalous increase in those illegal divorces, which, more than any other reason, undermine the foundations of morality and prepare for the complete destruction of the foundation on which society is based.” 503 The Council exhorts to abstain from mixed marriages with heretics; 504 meanwhile, in practice there are even cases when Catholics in areas remote from church centers marry Protestants who, in fact, turn out to be not even baptized. In this case, marriage in the eyes of the church is still a marriage. Often, however, those united in this way live in good harmony and good faith, and when the priest, having learned about the illegality of their cohabitation, invites them to confirm their cohabitation, sometimes the unbaptized party refuses this. For such cases, the prelates ask the pope for the power to communicate to the missionaries who often visit these distant places the authority to radically (in radice) restore such marriages. 505 The Council also found that in most provinces of the United States the Council of Trent's ruling on secret marriages had not been proclaimed. In some districts this proclamation is questionable. The prelates insist on the exact implementation of the definition. 506 The sixth section is devoted to definitions regarding the performance of worship, and the seventh treats the establishment of uniform discipline. 507 In the field of ecclesiastical discipline, the prelates were confronted with the fact that throughout the vast expanse of the United States there was great diversity in the observance of certain ecclesiastical institutions. This was especially noticeable in the observance of holidays and fasts. “Some places celebrate seven or eight holidays, while others celebrate four times as many. The observance of fasting, except for Pentecost, also varies in different places.” 508 The prelates were embarrassed by this deviation from the uniform teaching of the church and turned to Rome with a petition so that uniformity could be established in this regard. But it is remarkable that Rome in this regard turned out to be more liberal than the prelates of the council, and in its answer says that it is better to respect the existing customs of each diocese, and that if it is necessary to make some modifications, then each bishop separately could appeal to the pope on this matter. 509 But the feast of the Immaculate Conception was declared a patronage feast for the United States, and was therefore made obligatory throughout the country. 510 In other respects, monotony is established. The prelates desire complete uniformity in everything that concerns Christian edification and prayer books. A catechism should be compiled according to the catechism of Cardinal Bellarmine, adapted to the special situation of Catholics in the United States. 511 Prayer books that have not received the approval of the bishop should not be used by Catholics. 512 Prelates prohibit the collection of money for church or charitable needs through entertainment establishments, since such a method causes public confusion and “exposes the Catholic name to the reproach and ridicule of those of other faiths. 513 They then exhort the Catholics to abstain from that kind of entertainment which is known in American cities as picnics and excursions. 514 In addition to questions about monasteries (Titulus VIII, public education (Titulus IX) and other means promoting the development of church life (Titulus X), to which, due to their importance, we devote special chapters of the study, the council did not fail to pay serious attention to one social force that in America more than in any other country influences society, namely literature, both book and especially periodicals, newspapers and magazines. It devotes himself to the question “about books and newspapers (De Libris et Ephemeridibus).” Having praised the art of typography, which, more than all other inventions of modern times, has brought convenience to literature, science, religion itself and to all human life and society, 515 the prelates note with sorrow: “But alas (Verum proh dolor), this most insidious enemy of God and humanity tried to steal for himself. convert for your own use. And it is hardly even probable what progress the heresies made in the sixteenth century, how many souls this hellish predator and murderer destroyed, taking advantage of this clever and almost divine art. Such is the weakness of human nature, such is the persistence and malice of the demon in the destruction of people redeemed by Christ.” 516 Turning to a review of the modern influence of literature, the prelates say: “Now bad books, little books, stories and newspapers are published every day under all kinds and at cheap prices, which are taken in great demand by everyone (fere teruntur). What is most regrettable is that some of these books, stories, diaries, public leaflets and others of this kind, the writers of which, if not openly, then insidiously and as if by trickery, try to attack and undermine religion and honesty of morals, are bought by Catholics or published at their expense, received into their homes and read by their children and household. Truly sad is the blindness of those parents who, with their own hands, dig a hole for themselves and prepare their own destruction (ruinam parant)!” 517 Having depicted the disastrous influence of the immoral press, the prelates call on all the faithful, especially fathers of families, to cleanse their homes of all harmful and dangerous books, confirming their admonition with the words of the Apostle: “If anyone does not take care of his own, and especially those of his own household, he has renounced the faith, and is worse than an infidel.” 518 In view of this, all school books must be carefully reviewed, corrected and subject to episcopal approval. 519 For this purpose, a special council was established, which was composed of the rectors of the three colleges of the Baltimore Metropolitanate. 520 But if bad books should be eliminated in every possible way, then, on the contrary, boni libri should be distributed among the people as much as possible. The prelates express the desire that for this purpose societies should be formed everywhere, specially engaged in the dissemination of saving and useful books, and point to the New York (Neo-Eboraci) “Society of Catholic Publications” as a model. 521 In each city committees connected with the central society should be formed, and annual collections should be made to benefit this cause. 522 Prayer books must always be examined by theologians and not printed except with the approval of the bishop. 523 “What we said above about books of good and evil, say the prelates, can easily be applied to newspapers (Ephemeridibus) or public leaflets. Of these, some are wicked and cursed; very many are extremely (maxime) disastrous for morals; There are few that can be tolerated, and very few that deserve praise and recommendation. The shepherds of souls should completely prohibit the reading of those who are unsuitable, but carefully and prudently and not always by name, so that the souls of the youngest or rudest are not inflamed by this towards more greedy reading. Let those who are good and included in the list of those useful for religion and souls recommend and take care to maintain, read and disseminate them.” 524 “Public papers published or administered by Catholics must exist if they promote the good of the Catholic faith. But out of fear that the political opinions of writers should not be attributed to the ecclesiastical authority or the Catholic religion, as is often done by malicious opponents, we wish that everyone should be duly informed that we do not recognize any journal as Catholic unless it bears the approval of the bishop (Ordinarii approbationem).” 525 “In many dioceses there are journals that use the very name of Catholic and bear the approval of the bishop. For the bishop allegedly uses them as means and instruments through which he proclaims his commands and his thoughts to the clergy and the people. Hence they are usually called official bodies (Organa officialia), as if the one who administers the episcopal office and dignity teaches and speaks to his flock in every page and line of them. This opinion, false as it may be, but arising from an erroneous understanding of such a name, overwhelms the minds of everyone, especially heretics. This causes great inconvenience; for everything that is written by the writers of these newspapers or sheets, sometimes under the influence of human passion is false, discordant and immoderate, is attributed to the bishop himself, as if teaching the people by virtue of his office.” 526 “To thus remove this heavy and inconvenient responsibility from the episcopal office thereafter; in order to correctly and clearly establish the true attitude, as they say, of bishops towards church leaflets or Catholic magazines; so that then no doubt could arise either among ours or among our opponents, the fathers of this full council declare and proclaim that the approval of the bishop, which is usually given to Catholic leaflets, means nothing more than that the bishop finds in them nothing contrary to faith and morality, hopes that in the future there will be nothing of the kind, and that the editors themselves are such that their writings can be useful for edification; the bishop cannot and should not be responsible or give an account for everything that is in these sheets, but only about what he issues by virtue of his office for teaching, exhortation, command or prohibition to the people, and to which he signs with his own hand.” 527 The prelates of the council considered this question so important that they found it necessary to persistently repeat this definition in their pastoral letter. “We gladly acknowledge,” they say, the services which the Catholic press has done for religion, and the disinterestedness with which it is generally carried on, giving very little compensation to publishers and editors for their labors. We exhort the Catholic community to give these publications more generous support so that they may become more worthy of the cause for which they advocate. We remind you that the power of the press is one of the most striking features of modern society, and that we have a duty to use this medium for proclaiming the truths of our religion and eliminating the misunderstandings that generally prevail in relation to them. If many of these publications do not represent what we would like them to be, it is often explained that the real reason for their unsatisfactoryness is the insufficient support they receive from the Catholic public. Supply and demand correspond to each other; and if in many cases the former produces the latter, then, in the case of Catholic publications at least, demand must precede supply. We also wish to warn against the misunderstanding that often arises from the fact that the name of the bishop is associated with such publications, so that they are recognized as organs, that is, as a medium through which the bishop communicates with his flock. This circumstance gives no other sanction to the articles appearing in these publications than that which they receive in the name of the writer when it is designated; still less does it identify the bishop with the publication, so as to justify the conclusion that everything that appears in it has his sanction and authority. This simply means that the bishop may from time to time place in it such official documents as he may find it necessary to publish; but in relation to them it would be highly desirable to have a special regular method of communication.” 528 The prelates of the council then express the desire that a special journal (the Quarterly Review) should be founded, which would be especially devoted to the exposition and defense of the Catholic doctrine and which would be the property of the Archbishop of Baltimore, New York, or others with him, 529 and in their pastoral letter they again dwell on the special recommendation of the “Catholic Publication Society” in New York. “In this connection,” they say, “we sincerely recommend to the faithful the Catholic Publication Society, recently founded in the city of New York by a zealous and devoted clergyman. Besides the publication of short treatises, with which the Society began, and which may be useful in attracting the attention of those who have neither the inclination nor the leisure to read longer works, this Society has in view the publication of Catholic books, as circumstances may permit and the interests of religion may require. Judging by the good taste in the compilation and selection of those books which have already been published by the Society, we dare to hope that it will be very useful in introducing the truths of our holy religion and in dispelling the prejudices which mainly owe their existence to the want of acquaintance with them on the part of so many of our fellow citizens. In view of this, it is necessary that generous assistance be given, both by clergy and laity, to an enterprise which in its importance is not inferior to any of the auxiliary means that the inventions of modern times provide to our ministry for the spread of Catholic truth.” 530 In addition to the press, as an open force, another force is of great importance in public life in the United States - in the form of an extensive network of secret societies formed to achieve various goals - religious, moral, economic and political. The prelates of the council did not lose sight of this circumstance and dedicated the twelfth section of their decrees to it. 531 “Secret societies that hide in the dark in order to act more accurately against the good of the Church or civil society have always been condemned by the Catholic Church,” they say. 532 Having cited various decrees of the popes regarding the prohibition of secret societies, the prelates confirm them in relation to the American secret societies and especially the Masonic society, which is very widespread in America. “Masonic and other societies of this kind, which openly or secretly contrive against the church or legal authorities, are condemned and condemned.” 533 But besides societies that have more or less declared their hostility to the church or the existing order, there are many societies in America that declare that they have nothing against church and state, and form a secret society either for cooperation, or for mutual aid, or even simply for ordinary public pleasures. Thus, Archbishop Kenrick of Philadelphia turned to the Roman Curia to resolve the question of how to apply definitions prohibiting secret societies to such an American society as the “Odd Fellows” society, which is very extensive in America. The Congregatio inquisitionis, which had jurisdiction over this issue, could not find an answer to this question and only answered: “in accordance with the bulls of the pope.” 534 Having compiled a set of these bulls and decrees, the prelates of the council came to the following conclusion: “After a thorough study of them, we do not see any reason that the church’s prohibition against the Masonic and other secret sects extends to those societies of workers who do not set themselves any other goal than to provide mutual protection and assistance to comrades in their respective crafts. However, one must be careful that, under this pretext, nothing is allowed that favors the condemned sects; and so that the workers who give their names to these societies are not seduced by the bad and insidious tricks of evil people, do not withdraw from due work and do not in any way violate the laws. All this, however, should not be understood in such a way that those societies, of whatever nature, are considered tolerant, in which the members, from the very entry, are obliged by oath to obey what will be ordered by the leaders of the society, or to enter into such secret unions as their purpose is to oppose the legitimate authority. Those societies are not yet allowed in which the members unite for mutual protection in such a way that there may be a danger of indignation or disorder. 535 But, in any case, the prelates conclude, “the sons of light do only things that come from the light, they do not love the secret and dark, on the contrary, they hate it and are horrified. And so let the faithful take care and try in every way so as not to be deceived in this matter, so that, under the guise of good, not to be drawn into a worse captivity, so that finally, spinning in darkness and the shadow of death, trampling upon the most sacred laws, not to enter into such communities, which should be feared as the greatest evil of our age, the only goal of which may be the trampling of all rights, both divine and human.” 536 The thirteenth section deals with the opening of new departments and the fourteenth – with more effective means of implementing the decrees of the council. “We exhort the bishops not to move any stone either in visiting the diocese, or in the synods, both diocesan and provincial, or in the meeting of priests to discuss theological teachings, until the decisions of this full council are fulfilled in all, the collection of which supplements and confirms all the laws decreed and proclaimed by the previous councils of Baltimore and recognized by the court of the holy seat.” 537 “Finally, so that the definitions of this full council can better reach the attention of our priests and be better implemented in practice, we decree that, after recognition by the holy seat, they should be published and accepted in our schools of canon law and theology, as a certain norm, which professors would follow and explain when teaching, and all students would diligently and carefully study.” 538 Then follow the signatures of the prelates of the council. Attached to the acts of the council is a “pastoral letter”, in which the prelates briefly outline the definitions of the council, and its first paragraph defines the legislative force of full councils. “The authority of these councils, say the prelates, is original, and not borrowed; and therefore their determinations, from the time of their proclamation, have the character of ecclesiastical law for the faithful in the district or region subject to the jurisdiction of the bishops by whom they were decreed. But according to a wise rule, which combines the beneficence of the central government with the benefits of local legislation, the decisions of these councils are not proclaimed until they are presented to the holy seat. This is not only in order to give them even higher authority, but also in order to guard against any inaccuracy in the presentation of the faith, or any decree incompatible with the general teaching of the church, or even one that could be contrary to the spirit of church legislation.” 539 While reviewing the definitions of the council, the prelates in their pastoral letter dwell on such aspects of church life that could not find a more or less detailed presentation in the definitions themselves. Thus, they devote a special paragraph to the question of “the relations of church and state,” and it is so important in the sense of understanding both the views of the Roman Catholic Church on this subject, and the actual state of these relations in the United States, that we consider it necessary to give the general part of it here. “The enemies of the church, say the prelates, do not fail to portray its claims as incompatible with the independence of civil power, and its action as hostile to the activities of the state for the development of the welfare of society. Not only are these accusations not based on facts, but the power and influence of the church turns out to be the most effective support for the earthly power that governs society. It is true that the Church does not proclaim the absolute and visible independence of civil power, because it teaches with the Apostle that “all authority is from God”; that the earthly ruler is His servant and that the power of the sword, which he uses to exercise authority, was given to him from above (Rom. 13:1-5). For the children of the church, obedience to civil authority is not submission to a force that cannot be resisted; and not a mere condition of peace and security; but a religious duty based on obedience to God, by whose authority the civil superior exercises his authority. But this power, being subordinate and bestowed, must always be exercised according to the law of God. By prescribing anything contrary to this law, the civil authority exceeds its authority, and has no right to the obedience of the citizen. Disobedience to God can never be legal, as the apostles Peter and John clearly declared before the tribunal that sat to judge them: “Judge whether it is right in the sight of God to listen to you rather than to God” (Acts 4:10). This undeniable principle does not, however, lead to the same consequences in the Catholic system as in sectarian systems. In the latter the individual is the supreme judge of what the law of God commands or forbids, and is therefore able to claim the sanction of the supreme law for that which after all can be, and often is, only the suggestion of an undisciplined mind or a fevered imagination. And a civil government cannot be expected to recognize a power which has no guarantee of its divine character and no limits to its exercise, without plunging the state into disorder and anarchy. A Catholic has a leader in the church, as a divine institution, which gives him the opportunity to distinguish what the law of God prohibits or allows, and the state is obliged to recognize this authority as supreme in the sphere of moral, no less than dogmatic teaching. There may be cases where individual Catholics make a misapplication of this principle; or when, while the principle of obedience to civil authority is recognized as a divine obligation, the seat of that authority may be subject to doubt, in consequence of the division of opinion which prevails in regard to this important fact. The Church has no claim to decide such matters in an earthly manner, since she is not a judge in civil disputes, although she has always, when invited to this, tried to eliminate the misunderstandings from which debates so often arise, and to give advice for the common good, maintaining the peace of society and the rights of justice. 540 The published acts and resolutions of the council undoubtedly constituted an important legislative monument that will long serve as a guide for the ecclesiastical life of the Roman Catholic population in the United States. The value that Catholics themselves attach to it can be judged by the following tirade of a Catholic publicist: “When reading (acts and definitions), you are involuntarily amazed at the wisdom and prudence that characterize them. After the divine help, certainly not denied in such a holy undertaking, here you find that American common sense, extremely precise and practical, which, when dealing with sublime objects, takes them mainly from their positive side and, without losing sight of the principle, always adapts them to time and circumstances. While the disciplinary side is very rich in this book, pure theory takes up only a little space. The Council first and most wanted to be a matter of organization. No less remarkable in what he did not say than in what he did say, he seemed to embody the poet's advice: semper ad eventum festinat; there are no unnecessary details or useless erudition; everything bears the stamp of legislation, soberly but firmly motivated, in which nothing is omitted that can enlighten and convince the mind, and nothing is allowed to lengthen a text that is rightly short, or to complicate a simple subject. This is a majestic monument, of simple and strict proportions; art is apparently neglected in it, but in any case it is not absent. If, in view of such a great work, it were permissible to pay attention to a minor detail, then we would say that seminary students, studying these acts, will find in them an example of that beautiful Latin, which, unfortunately, is too rare in theological treatises. 541 “We readily admit,” say the prelates of the second full Baltimore Council, that many benefits have been derived for religion from the fact that religious men in our dioceses have carried out their work. Our ancestors always had this idea, and we still have the same opinion, that through their labors the burden placed on bishops was greatly eased; the secular clergy, burdened with pastoral duties, are given timely assistance, and finally, the faithful people receive the greatest benefits non uno ex capite.” 542 With such a solemn recognition of the services of the monastic orders for the cause of Roman Catholicism in America, the prelates of the council found it necessary to open their treatise on monastics. This recognition corresponds to their services to the Roman Catholic Church and may not even fully appreciate them. Monastic orders always form an important element in the organizing activities of the Roman Catholic Church. These are her warriors, whom she sends to all countries of the world to conquer peoples. Unbound by any personal interests and living only by the will of the supreme head of Roman Catholicism, at his first wave they leave their homeland and selflessly go to the most remote outskirts of the world, into the impenetrable wilds of deserts, into the midst of bloodthirsty savages and preach to them the gospel of love and submission to the “Vicar of Christ” on earth. “I confess,” writes Leibniz, “I have always looked at monastic orders with fiery surprise; it is something like the heavenly army on earth. They constitute one of those features that force us to respect the church, which has preserved the name and signs of Catholicism, so that it alone produces and cherishes these brilliant examples of sublime virtues and ascetic life.” 543 But if the services of monastic orders are generally important for the Roman Catholic Church, then in the United States they receive even greater importance in view of the special conditions of the introduction and development of Roman Catholicism there. The growth of the Roman Catholic population in this country is taking place so rapidly and under conditions so unparalleled in history that the organizing activities of the Church would fall far short of the needs if it could not have at its disposal a ready, easily mobile, self-sacrificing force in the form of monastic orders. A sketch of the history of the development and success of Roman Catholicism in the United States would therefore be incomplete if it did not point out the indispensable services rendered to its cause by the religious orders, especially as these services constitute one of the reasons for the rapid spread and present strength of the Roman Catholic Church in the country. The first seeds of Christianity sown on the soil of the New World were brought by members of monastic orders. Already with the first expeditions that had just begun to penetrate into the present territory of the United States, missionaries came from members of monastic orders, and only thirty-six years after the discovery of the mainland, the Roman Catholic Church had its first martyrs in them. 544 Then the entire period of the colonial era, before the declaration of independence, represents the heroic epic of the missionary exploits of various monastic orders and especially the Jesuits, who were specifically entrusted with the education of the North American Indians. 545 At the same time, they were the main executors of church requirements among the Catholic population. When harsh legislative measures prevailed everywhere towards Catholics, completely prohibiting Catholic priests from setting foot on the soil of most of the colonies, the Catholic population in many of them retained their faith and did not perish among the Protestants thanks only to the dedication of the Jesuits, who, despite the dangers that threatened them, penetrated wherever there were Catholics, often secretly, and sometimes openly, at the risk of paying with their heads. 546 Throughout the colonial era, they were the main figures of Roman Catholicism in the country, guiding the first steps of the church and preparing it for the new era that opened up with the declaration of independence. Amid the general prejudice towards “papalism”, they knew how to penetrate the upper classes of society, established colleges and at first had children of the best and even ruling families as their pupils. 547 Thanks to their ability to adapt to circumstances and their historical sense, they were the first to understand the impending revolution in the fate of the country and managed to make the best use of it for the benefit of the church they represented. By this time, with their schools, they had already managed to attract public attention to themselves as an important political force, formed a certain circle of admirers and penetrated into the trust of society to such an extent that the Protestant Congress, during negotiations with Canada, did not hesitate to use the services of the Jesuit Carrol. 548 Finally, when the revolution itself took place, the Jesuits proved to be the dominant force in the church and gave from their midst the first bishop for the Roman Catholic Church in the United States, laying, so to speak, the first cornerstone for the edifice of Roman Catholicism. 549 The state of the church at this time was such that only the indestructible energy and practical acumen of the Jesuit could meet its needs. The Catholic population was scattered and scattered throughout the vast borders of the country, often without seeing a priest for dozens of years; the clergy were few in number and often undisciplined; Church organization had not yet begun. The work ahead was enormous and could only be accomplished by the “spiritual Hannibal” - or a Jesuit. 550 The first Jesuit bishop was fully aware of both the difficulty of the task ahead of him and the instrument through which it was most convenient to accomplish it. He zealously began to implement four enterprises that could be of paramount importance for the success of Roman Catholicism in the country - namely, the organization of the Catholic education of youth, the education of the national clergy, the building of churches and the founding of women's communities for the cause of charity. “The first need was the most urgent, because it was necessary to give Catholic children an exclusively Catholic education in order to protect them from the dangers of Protestant schools.” 551 But it could have been most conveniently implemented under the given circumstances, since the Jesuits, who made up the first cadres of the clergy, were the best masters of specifically Catholic education. Through the combined efforts of the Jesuit bishop and his brethren, the college in Georgetown was quickly founded, and it soon became the center of Roman Catholic education in the country. 552 By luck, or by the historical instinct of the Jesuits, the college was founded in an area that turned out to be the center of the political life of the country, since just one mile from the college, by decision of the Congress of 1791, the place was chosen for the national capital - the present Washington. 553 In view of this, the Jesuit college soon gained popularity among the upper and ruling classes of the country and educated several generations in the spirit of Roman Catholicism. 554 But her first steps were difficult. The number of Jesuits who could devote themselves to the work of teaching was insignificant, and, moreover, in their activities at this time they were bound by the papal bull of 1773, which, as is known, closed the order itself. 555 This was a great obstacle for them. They could act only as ex-Jesuits and were unable to carry out the organized activities in which their main strength lay. True, the flexible logic of the sons of Loyola knew how to reconcile their obedience to the papal bull with the continuation of their existence, and being ex-Jesuits do jure, they still remained Jesuits de facto. But for completeness of action, the prohibition of the order was still an obstacle. Nevertheless, they fully understood their strength in the consciousness of the Roman Catholic world and did not despair that the time would come again when the temporary circumstances that led to the closure of the order would be eliminated, and the order would again begin its activities ad majorem Dei gloriam. They were quite sure that their raison d'etre remained unshaken, on the basis of Roman Catholicism, and was only awaiting time for its open renewal. This confidence was revealed with particular clarity in the United States, which, due to its remoteness from the center of Roman Catholicism, presented more opportunities for the elastic logic of the Jesuits. The Jesuit bishop was aware of what an important tool for his activities he would receive in the organized assistance of the order and, anticipating the inevitability of its revival and restoration in the future, he decided to prevent this historical logic. “An ex-Jesuit, having become a bishop, should seem to care little about the fate of his order, which was destroyed thirty years earlier,” writes the Catholic historian. But the sons of the Society of Jesus never forget their mother, and as soon as Bishop Carrol learned that the Society still existed in some way in the Russian Empire, he decided to restore the fathers living in the United States. 556 Together with his coadjutor Ech-Jesuit Neale, he wrote to Gruber, the order's general in Russia, asking him to accept the American ex-Jesuits as members of the surviving order. “Our holy father Pius VI, of blessed memory, says this interesting document, established a new seat in Baltimore and gave the prelate appointed to it jurisdiction over the unlimited territory of this republic. From this time on, many fathers spread throughout the numerous provinces of America; and this dispersion, as we have a right to hope, contributed to the happy growth of true faith. But from the company of Jesus there are now only thirteen fathers left. These are people, for the most part, weakened by years and exhausted by work; They reside chiefly in Maryland and Pennsylvania, the provinces where the Catholic religion was first implanted and where it now flourishes more than anywhere else. From the letters of many of our brothers, we learned with lively joy that thanks to some miracle, the society was preserved and still exists on the territory of the Emperor of Russia. We know that the supreme pontiff recognized him and that by a bull he gave your patronymic (Paternite) the authority to admit again those who belonged to the society. Almost all our old fathers earnestly beg the favor of renewing the vows they made to God in this institution; they wish to end their lives in his bosom and propose to devote their last days to the restoration of society, if Providence allows. Your patronymic does not know what efforts must be made so as not to resurrect some ghost of the previous society. It must come to life, but in its true form - with its own control in all things and with its own spirit. To achieve this result, it seems to us necessary that your patronymic select from among the members of the order one father, gifted with extreme prudence, experienced in business, filled with the spirit of St. Ignatius and his decrees, so that he sent here by you will manage everything in your name and under your authority. A long voyage might be avoided if one could be found in England or here in society to whom the mission could be entrusted. But, to tell the whole truth, we were used so much in services alien to our institution; we are so inexperienced in management; The lack of books, even the decrees and definitions of the congregation, is so glaring that you cannot find among us one Jesuit who, in terms of health and strength, as well as other necessary qualities, is capable of holding the office of abbot. Therefore, it would be extremely useful to send here some father from those around you. He must know fully your intentions, and be prudent enough not to undertake anything at random, without first having studied the government, the laws, and the spirit of this republic, and the customs of the people. The property belonging to the Society is almost all intact, and is sufficient to support thirty members. After the destruction of the order, one part of this property was dedicated to the founding of a college where youth were taught literature. When Pius VI wished to give a bishop to this country and later a coadjutor with the right of succession, he chose both from among the fathers of the Society. In this republic, priests, of whatever religion, all enjoy the same equal freedom. Nothing prevents monastics from living according to their rules, as long as they obey civil laws. Nevertheless, in contracts of any kind it is better to refrain from naming the community. All property owned by monastics is considered to belong to individuals, and if anyone throws off the yoke of religion, he does so with impunity in this world; the secular hand in no way extends to bring him into obedience to duty. These are the vows which our brethren desire to be laid before you in their name. In doing this, we from the depths of our hearts pray to the Divine Majesty that from this intercourse hope will be born and the beginning of the work of restoring the Society, and that God will grant you life and the necessary strength to accomplish such a work.” 557 Gruber's answer was not long in coming. By virtue of the authority granted to him by the Roman Curia, the general could accept into the society the former fathers and young people who presented themselves to him, under the same condition that in those states where the sovereigns refused to recognize the vow of the pope, the Jesuits did not wear the robes of their order and did not live in community. This restriction could not be applied in the United States, and therefore Gruber allowed the American Jesuits to communicate with the order and, to reorganize their community, sent Father Molyneux as head of the mission. 558 Thus, the United States was the first, after Russia, to receive a newly organized community of Jesuits. For the Roman Catholicism of the country, this fact was of invaluable importance. In the revived order he received such an organizing force that gave him the opportunity to look more boldly into the future. When the news of the restoration of the order in America spread, the Jesuits scattered throughout Europe began to flock from all sides to a new field of activity. Soon after the reorganization, the Jesuit order in the United States was strengthened by a dozen outside members 559 and activity began to boil again, with its center at the college in Georgetown, which henceforth became the alma mater of the American Jesuits. 560 Together with the members of the Sulpician Order, 561 who arrived in America during the turmoil of the French Revolution, they played a major role in directing the work of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States until the time of the great migration of European peoples to America, which began in the 40's. This was an important period in the history of the country's Roman Catholic Church. Having just been freed from government oppression, she entered a new phase of her life and had to seriously and accurately weigh and determine her position, her strengths and hopes. This required the strong and penetrating sense of the Jesuit with the selfless enthusiasm of the Sulpicians. The combination of these two forces was a great happiness for the church, and to this happy circumstance it owes the fact that even under the administration of the first Jesuit bishop it could rise to considerable heights both morally, hierarchically and economically. “The Patriarch of the American Church,” Bishop Carroll, thanks to his Jesuitical politics and Jesuit education, was able in his person to raise the hitherto despised and persecuted church to such a height that, on the occasion of the death of the founder of the Republic, Washington, Congress unanimously commissioned him to deliver a panegyric over the valiant liberator of the country. 562 Only the iron energy of a Jesuit could unite into a harmonious whole that scattered, multi-tribal and multi-lingual mass of the Catholic population from which the church was first composed; 563 and only the selfless enthusiasm of the Sulpicians could not be afraid of the immensity of the work that lay ahead in the remote outskirts of the country. These two orders almost exclusively filled the highest hierarchical positions of the church from the very beginning of the hierarchy and during the first four decades of the present century. The Jesuit order held the central post, the Archdiocese of Baltimore, and the Sulpicians occupied the newly opened sees in the surrounding cities, and were thus the chief pioneers in the organization of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in the United States. 564 At the same time, with their colleges they trained the first native priests 565 and at the same time were the first workers in the field of Catholic education, which was later destined to play a very important role in the fate of the church. 566 In addition to the Jesuits and Silpicians, during the first quarter of the current century, only two orders arrived in America: the Trappists, who brought with them examples of rigoristic asceticism, 567 and the Lazarists, whose goal was religious, charitable and teaching activities. 568 These orders were still sufficient for the needs of the church, since until the forties the Catholic population did not have a particular increase and the work of the church was limited to organizing and preparing candidates for the priesthood to satisfy ordinary needs. But from the beginning of the forties of the current century, a new era began in the history of Roman Catholicism in America. At this time, the first wave of European emigration arose and poured into the New World. This wave was the beginning of a general, constant and progressive influx of immigrants to America, which increased in volume every year. The Catholic population, thanks to this tide, began to increase with incredible force, and new Catholic settlements were formed every year in hitherto deserted places. Extraordinary efforts were required from the hierarchy to satisfy the religious needs of these settlers. But even with supernatural tensions, the available forces could not be enough for the annually increasing needs. The Church found itself in a difficult situation. Constantly forming new and new Catholic settlements demanded priests for themselves, but there were none. The Protestant environment around them might have swallowed up the inexperienced and frustrated settlers, and the Roman Catholic Church might have lost much of the harvest that had given it power and strength. Then its reserve forces in the form of monastic orders came to the aid of the church and provided it with an irreplaceable service. Monastic orders, as a social force, are completely dependent on the number of religious needs of the society that called them into existence, and therefore, of necessity, fully reflect all its movements. When the European population began to flow to America, the monastic orders in Europe either had to reduce their numerical strength or follow the settlers. Since the settlers took with them their religious need, it was most natural for the orders to follow them in order to satisfy it on the soil of the New World. And indeed, from the very beginning of European emigration to America, the emigration of monastic orders began, and as the wave of popular emigration increased, the number of migrating orders increased along with it. Since the forties, which marked the beginning of the European migration of peoples, there has been a long, uninterrupted line of monastic orders that have landed on the shores of the United States almost every year. In 1838, the Redemptorists arrived and began their work in the Archdiocese of Baltimore, among the German population, which was in dire need of priests of their own nationality. 569 This was the first vanguard of the monastic army, followed by the main forces. In 1841, the Congregation of St. Cross" and began to conduct her Christian teaching mission. 570 The following year, 1842, the “Fathers of Charity” went overseas and developed their missionary activity mainly among the French population - from Canada to New Orleans. 571 In 1844, the Order of the Precious Blood arrived and founded several monasteries and a seminary in the gold country of California and Ohio. 572 In 1846, the venerable Benedictine Order, rich in historical experience and glory, moved overseas. In the person of its members in America there appeared the truest personification of the historical papacy, since it became famous for producing from its midst about fifty popes. 573 “The main purpose of this ancient order is to glorify God by regular and solemn worship, day and night; as well as literature, agriculture and youth education.” 574 Their activities were given a wide field on new soil, and therefore the order soon took root in America and began to spread rapidly, and at present it is one of the most flourishing in the country. 575 But the Order of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, which arrived in the same year, became even more widespread and important. To this order the Roman Catholic Church in the United States owes much of its success. With his arrival, he made up for one of its biggest shortcomings, namely the lack of teachers for special Catholic schools. The Protestant school, supported by the state, began to make rapid progress in the country and had a strong influence on the Catholic population. The hierarchy made every effort to create its own special Catholic schools, in which Catholic youth could be educated in the Catholic spirit, away from the influence of Protestant schools. But there were no teachers. Then Archbishop Eccleston of Baltimore turned for help to the Brothers of Christian Schools, whose main and special vow is education. The Order responded to the call, and founded its institutions first in Baltimore, then in New York. 576 From that time on, the order began to scatter its branches in all directions of the country and soon covered it with a network of its colleges, academies and schools. At present, there is no more or less significant city in the country where the Brothers of Christian Schools do not have their own institutions. They are in charge of parochial schools in New York, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Albany, Brooklyn, Chicago, and many other important cities of the country. The number of students under their leadership rises to thirty thousand. 577 In addition to schools, the order runs many colleges of higher knowledge, namely ten colleges, which are located in all directions of the country and are very popular not only among Catholics, but even among Protestants. Their college in New York, the so-called Mangathan College, is considered one of the best in the state. According to statistics of 1876, the order counted seven hundred (700) brothers and had forty-nine (49) institutions under its special jurisdiction. 578 Such success of the order in the thirty years since its introduction into the United States shows not only the enormous need of the Catholic population for Catholic education, but also testifies to the general need for Christian education on the part of the American population, which, by force of necessity, is forced to be content with the state secularized school. In 1847, the Franciscan Order resumed its mission in America, which it had begun in the 16th century. In 1848, the Order of “Mary Immaculate” arrived, with its vow of caring for the oppressed and forgotten classes of society, as well as training in theological seminaries and colleges. The Order, by its very name, seemed to personify the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, favorably accepted by the prelates of the sixth provincial council of Baltimore. 579 In 1849 a new special teaching order, the Brothers of Mary, arrived, and with the Brothers of the Christian Schools has devoted itself zealously to the service of Roman Catholicism through Catholic education, and now has about twenty-five (25) establishments in various cities and states of the Union. 580 In 1853 the Passionist Order arrived. “Their life’s work is to convert sinners, to attract people to God through exhortations and persuasion. In achieving this goal they combine the severity of the Trappist with the energy of the Jesuit." 581 They lead the most severe and ascetic lives. Divine services are performed at midnight and at sunrise they indulge in the day's work. The Order was a great success in America, and this is all the more remarkable in view of the well-known practicality of American nature, apparently completely alien to the aimless severity of asceticism. 582 In 1854, the order of the “Xaverian Brothers” arrived, 583 which strengthened the composition of the teaching orders. This was followed by a number of other orders until very recently, such as: Society of Mary (1863), Carmelites (1865), Alexian Brothers (1866), Servite Fathers (1870), Congregation of St. Viatera (1865), Congregation of St. Hearts (1874), Congregation of the Resurrection (1865), Brothers of St. Hearts (1874), Brothers of Charity (1874), and others. According to statistics from 1876, there were 27 male Roman Catholic orders in the United States. 584 All these orders followed step by step the emigration of the European population and continued to serve them on the soil of the New World. But American life also presented demands that could not be satisfied by foreign orders. They could only be satisfied by a native order, made up of persons deeply related to and understanding the peculiarities of American life. For this purpose, the native American Order of Paulists was founded in 1854, 585 of which the American Hecker served as its founder. The purpose of the order is missionary work in its highest sense, as the spread of Christianity and especially Roman Catholicism through the highest historical, literary and philosophical knowledge. The main seat of the order is in New York, and it consists of nineteen members, 586 whose main virtue is a high, comprehensive education. The Pauline Order carries on the publication of the best Catholic monthly magazine in the United States, The Catholic World, which, under the able direction of Hecker, the founder of the order, in its thirty-three volumes presents a rich encyclopedia of general Christian and philosophical knowledge and has done much to establish the moral influence of the Roman Catholic Church in America. 587 Under his jurisdiction is the extensive "Society of Catholic Publications", the benefits and importance of which were solemnly testified by the second full council of Baltimore, setting it as a model for all other similar societies. 588 No matter how great the forces that came to the aid of the Roman Catholic Church in the form of men's orders, in view of the enormity of the work itself, they would still not be enough if it did not have another equally important force in the form of women's orders. Women's orders are another army with the help of which Roman Catholicism strengthens its position in the world. One can even say that Roman Catholicism itself is, to a significant extent, a female religion, a religion of external, overwhelming aesthetic effect and internal sentimentalism. 589 Hence the enormous development which the women's orders have in it, and in the United States they are twice as numerous as the men's orders. Within the current territory of the Union, women's orders began to appear at the beginning of the last century. The Ursulines were the first to appear and founded their community in New Orleans in 1727, when this area still belonged to France. 590 Ursulines - these can be said to be female Jesuits and for Roman Catholicism they provide the same services in their field as the Jesuits. Their goal is to spread and strengthen Roman Catholicism through the education of the female generation. They now have twelve (12) institutions in the United States, in which there are female academies and schools, filled with girls and maidens of all denominations, and conducted exclusively by sisters. 591 From these institutions come the most devoted Catholic women, and at one time, during the period of anti-Catholic movements, Protestant fanaticism attacked the Ursulines with particular fury, and several of their monasteries were destroyed by an angry crowd. 592 When New Orleans was ceded by France to the United States in 1803, the Ursulines became part of the American citizenry, and from that time on their era of prosperity began. 593 In 1790, after the proclamation of freedom of religious practice, the Carmelites arrived and were the first to bring examples of female asceticism to the American Union. 594 In 1808 the Sisters of the Annunciation arrived and now have eighteen (18) institutions for the education of girls. 595 The following year, 1809, the order of the Sisters of Charity arrived and brought with them a new element of charity. The Order found fertile soil in the New World and is currently one of the most flourishing in the country. He is now in charge of fifty (50) schools, thirty-eight (38) orphanages, thirty (30) hospitals and one (1) women's academy, which is considered one of the best women's colleges in the country. 596 In the same year, the native branch of the Order of the Sisters of Charity was formed, namely the Order of the Sisters of Charity of St: Vincent de Paul, who dedicated their activities specifically to the state of New York, from where they, however, spread to other states. This branch manages sixteen (16) academies, forty-eight (48) schools, thirteen (13) orphanages and two (2) hospitals. 597 The girls' academy they run, St. Vincent Academy, in New York State, is very popular among people of different religions. This community owes its origin to a certain Mrs. Seton, who converted to Catholicism from Protestantism and devoted herself to the service of the new church with all the fiery zeal of a neophyte. 598 In 1812, two more new women's orders, the Sisters of Lorette and the Sisters of Nazareth Benevolence, arose on American soil, and currently count in total more than six hundred (600) members, manage sixty (60) schools and academies and several hospitals and orphanages. 599 In 1818 the famous Order of Ladies of the Sacred Heart arrived. “Of the orders established during the present century, says the historian, none has received more widespread development than the Ladies of the Sacred Heart. None is more famous in the United States." 600 The vow of the “Ladies of the Sacred Heart” is the education of the younger generation of women in its highest branches, and in this regard the order enjoys great fame. Currently, the Ladies of the Sacred Heart have twenty (20) monasteries with over eight hundred (800) sisters. They are in charge of twenty (20) academies, fifteen (15) schools and two (2) orphanages. 601 Particularly famous is their women's academy in New York, founded under the leadership of the Russian sister of the order, Princess Golitsyna, 602 and designated specifically for the upper classes of the country. When European emigration increased from the thirties and forties, the women's orders increased their emigration to America in corresponding proportion, and it was interrupted until very recently, giving the United States, on the centennial anniversary of its independence, about fifty (50) orders engaged in all kinds of educational and charitable activities. 603 The strength of women's religious orders in the United States is currently estimated at 15,000. If we add to this the number of members in the male orders, which rises to 3,000 people, then this constitutes a powerful religious corps, with a strength of eighteen thousand people. 604 The services he rendered to the cause of Roman Catholicism are difficult to exaggerate. Without the assistance of monastic orders, as we saw above, the successful organization of the church would not have been possible. The monastic orders were the first to give it a hierarchy - from a simple priest to the highest church administrator, laid the very foundation of the hierarchy and constantly strengthened it with newly arriving forces. They brought into it that elastic flexibility that was necessary under rapidly changing circumstances, and that ability to combine autocratic centralization with democratic independence, which alone could give place to Roman Catholicism on the basis of a democratic republic. 605 They were the first fighters for the cause of the church in any difficult situation and, thanks to their mobility, they quickly appeared wherever the church needed, whether in the wild wilderness of the far West, or in the center of the intellectual life of the country, with the shovel and ax of a pioneer, or with a polemicist’s pamphlet. During the Catholic colonization of the western prairies, the members of the monastic orders were the first to appear in the virgin deserts and meet the emigrants, directing the plan of colonization, and during the anti-Catholic movements they were the first to defend Roman Catholicism with their power of theological knowledge and enlightened logic. They represent both the organizational and mental strength of the church, and at the second full Baltimore Council they represented the flower of theological Roman Catholic thought: the corps of theologians consisted almost exclusively of members of the various orders. 606 Finally, when the external organization of the church had achieved the desired perfection, the orders devoted themselves to the work of internal organization and now gigantic work in this direction is being carried out throughout the country. The orders have spread throughout the country such a dense network of various educational, educational and charitable institutions that Protestantism shudders. Thanks only to this devoted and gifted force, Roman Catholicism could withstand the struggle with the Protestant state in the matter of education, and it only enabled it to maintain specifically Catholic schools - from the lower elementary schools to the higher colleges and academies. At present, monastic orders in the United States administer 2,389 parochial schools with 423,383 students, 28 theological seminaries, 79 higher secular colleges, 511 female academies, 267 orphanages and 119 hospitals. 607 In these specially Catholic schools, also attended by Protestant children, that living material is developed which serves as the guarantee of the modern strength and future success of Roman Catholicism in the country. Finally, the monastic orders rendered immeasurable service to the Roman Catholic Church in collecting earthly goods, and only thanks to this service was it possible that from the poorest church, as it was at the end of the last century, it became the richest in the country, which it is at the present time. 608 The economic question is one of the most important issues of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States and is of enormous importance in its historical destiny. Roman Catholicism owes its successful resolution to the outward greatness that it exhibits at the present time. Just because of its importance, it begs for study, but it also represents another interest, namely in relation to the question of how the Roman Catholic Church, without any support from the state (due to the legal separation of church and state), could achieve such material well-being that it placed it economically at the head of other religious denominations and churches in the country. A study of the economic condition of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States forms the subject of the next chapter. According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs report for 1875, there were 279,333 Indians. Of these, 65,122 are considered full citizens. Census Bulletin of March 16, 1881, No. 77. But according to the statistical census of 1880, the entire population of the United States is determined to be 50,152,866 people. See Census Bulletin of March 16, 1881, No. 77. Bancroft, History of the U.S. Vol. I first chapter. The figures are taken from the Statistical Report on Emigration in The American Almanac for 1881, page 27. Europeans here mean direct immigrants from Europe. Among the rest of the number of immigrants, a significant portion are also Europeans, although they are moving from other parts of the world and countries, such as from South America, the West Indies, Canada, etc. From Canada alone, 99,706 people arrived in the United States last year. Of the 10½ million immigrants, 8,746;921 people are considered to be European settlers. American Almanac for 1881, page 27. American Almanac for 1881 p. 27. Actually, in the calendar year 1880, 327,371 people arrived in the New York port, who are distributed by nationality as follows: from Germany - 104,264; Ireland - 66,399; England - 33,768; Sweden - 35,217; Norway – 9,937; Italy – 11,190; Switzerland – 8,223; Russia – 7,693; Bohemia - 7,606; Hungary – 6,672; Denmark – 5,577; Austria – 4,461; France - 4,087; Wallis - 3,588; Netherlands - 3,259; Belgium - 1,309; Spain – 931; Scotland - 9.625, Stat. report in N.Y. Times, Jan. 25 1881. By Russian immigrants we do not mean real Russians, of whom there are none at all, but Mennonites and mainly Poles and Jews moving from Russia. This proportion is usually accepted for the Catholic population of these countries by Catholic publicists. See Catholic World, Vol. XXIII, p. 582. All these figures are for approximate purposes only. There is no data for an exact calculation, since the statistics of the “Emigrant Commission” do not distribute immigrants according to religious differences. The Catholic Directory for 1881 puts the entire Catholic population of the United States at 6,367,330; but this figure is in all likelihood lower than the actual one. Catholic publicists usually estimate it at seven million, while others even put it at eight and nine million. We accept the figure of 7,000,000 as accepted by most authorities. Catholic World, Vol. XXV, p. 677. Catholic World, Vol. XXV, p. 678. Shea, History, p. 128. Hecker, Catholic Church in U.S. p. 6. Pamphlet, 4th edition, 1880 Murray, History of Catholic Church in U.S. p. 577. Author of the brochure “The Catholic Church In U.S.” defines this number as 1,237,563 souls. Hecker, Catholic Church in U.S. p. 6–7. White, Sketch of History of Catholic Church in U.S. Appendix to Darras History of Catholic Church, Vol. IV, p. 660. – Murray, History, p. 573. Brownson in the Quarterly Review, October 1873. Murray, History, p. 637. Spalding, Religious Mission of the Irish people; p. 61–62. Now-York, 1880. Catholic World, Vol. XXIII, p. 592. Murray, History, Appendix, note A. p. 625. Murray, History, p. 567 etc. Catholic World, Vol. XXIII, p. 580. Murray, History, p. 577. Murray, who published his work in 1876, puts the figure at four millions, but subsequent immigration, together with natural increase, authorizes the adoption of our figure. Murray, Ibidem; Hecker, Catholic Church, p. 6. Murray, Ibidem, p. 589; Hecker, p. 6. Hecker, p. 6; Murray, pp. 317–320. Spalding, Religious Mission of Irish people, p. 112. Bishop Spalding thus characterizes the influence of political agitation on the Irish people: “Politics is causing serious harm to our people in the cities. A saint or a wise man could hardly touch the heart of our politics without disgust; and for the working classes it usually serves as a school of immorality and corruption. They imagine that something good can come to them from the success of this or that party, from the election of this or that candidate, and this good, if not completely illusory, consists of participating in the distribution of positions or spoils. This is enough to excite and excite them and fill them with the thought that their personal interest lies in the outcome of the struggle. Therefore, they enthusiastically devote themselves to agitation, that is, they drink an immense amount of disgusting poison. Given the low moral level of political feeling in this country, and especially in the cities, the poor, following the example of the rich, quickly remove conscience from these matters and come to the idea that selling or buying a vote, or voting falsely, is as simple as selling or buying a loaf of bread. All this is destructive of morality, and is not only disastrous for the poor, but injurious to the general welfare.” Religious Mission of Irish people, p. 126. Vast swathes of land in this area belong to the Pacific Railroad Company. Spalding, Religious Mission, p. 174 and 175. Spalding, Religious Mission p. 196. The efforts of leaders to colonize Catholics in the Far West have already brought significant results. The emigration of 1880 showed a tendency not to remain in the cities, as was the case before, but to head to the Far West to acquire farming. See N. Y. Herald of April 14, 1880. Catholic World, Vol. XX?, p. 689. Hecker, Catholic Church, p. 2. Murray, History pp. 574–576. Hecker, p. 8. Hecker, Catholic Church, pp. 5, 8. Hecker, Catholic Church, p. 19. The N. Y. Herald, November 19, 1880, puts the percentage for the former at 41 and for the latter at 27. Hecker, Catholic Church, p. 20. Murray, History, p. 316; Hecker, p. 18. Murray, History, p. 200. Some historians consider this figure to be lower than the actual one and put the Catholic population of that time at fifty thousand. Ibidem, note. Some statisticians estimate the Catholic population now as one-sixth of the total population of the States; but there is no sufficient reason for this. Hecker, p. 18; Murray, p. 316. N. T. Herald, April 14, 1880. Murray, History, p. 148. Catholic World, Vol. I, p. 3; Murray, p. 200. Murray, History, p. 191. Shea, History of Catholic Church, p. 52, 53. This is how some of the members of the assembly themselves viewed these resolutions. One of the missionaries, Farmer, says this about them in a letter to Carrol: “I cannot understand how we can be a society without a bishop as our head. We can have a voluntary union among ourselves, I admit it; but this cannot make us a canonical society of clergy, unless it is appointed and declared as such either by the Supreme Pastor, or rather by the bishop placed over us by him. Our communication, even temporalibus, I fear, will be regarded rather as a simple combination.” United States Catholic Magazine Vol. III, p. 800, This journal contains Camibelle's extensive monograph, "Life and Times of Archbishop Carroll," which provides valuable material for the early history of Roman Catholicism in America. The note was presented to Franklin by the papal nuncio at the court of Paris with the following letter: “The Apostolic Nuncio has the honor to transmit to Mr. Franklin the enclosed note. He asks him to introduce her to the Congress of the United States of North America and support her with his influence. July 28, 1783." Shea, History, p. 56. In a letter dated July 1, 1784, Franklin says: “The papal nuncio visited me and let me know that the pope, on my recommendation, had appointed John Carroli as superintendent of the Catholic clergy in America, with many of the powers of a bishop, and that he would probably be made bishop in partibus before the end of the year. He asked me what would be most convenient for him - to come to France, or to go to Saint-Domingue to receive consecration from another bishop, which was necessary. I mentioned Quebec (in Canada) as the most convenient location of all. He asked whether our government might be offended by this, since it was an English province. I thought not, unless consecration on the part of that bishop gives him some power over our bishop. He said, not at all, that when our bishop is once consecrated, he will be independent of everyone else, and even of the pope, which I could no longer clearly understand,” notes the simple-minded philosopher. Shea, History, p. 60. The relationship between the Jesuit Carrol and Franklin is remarkable. They were together on the embassy that Congress sent to negotiate with Canada in 1776. During the trip, Franklin fell ill, the Jesuit diligently looked after him, which gained him warm friendship from the latter. To this incident the Jesuit Carrol owed most of all his elevation to the rank of bishop, since Franklin did not forget about his friend even when he held the high public post of American envoy to the French court, and, as can be seen from the letter, recommended him to the papal attention. Shea, p. 42, 43. Murray, History, pp. 200, 201, 227. Murray, History, p. 203. Murray, History, p. 172–176. “For his high dignity as a servant of God, for his sterling character as a man, and most of all for his excellent services as a patriot during the Revolution, Dr. Carrol stood high, very high, in the esteem and sympathy of the famous Pater Patriae,” writes Coustis, Washington’s adopted son. White, Sketch, p. 612. Murray, p. 230. Shea, History, p. 54. Catholic World, vol. I, p. 4. Carrol fully understood the importance of this event for his church. Reporting his initial negotiations with the Sulpician general, he enthusiastically says: “The fishery seems to favor our species. We decided that two or three men, chosen by General Emery, should come to Baltimore the following spring. They are equipped with funds to purchase land for buildings and, I hope, to found a seminary for young ecclesiastics. I think they will bring with them three or four seminarians who are either English or know English. They will be provided with books, accessories for the altar, church, etc. - professors of philosophy and theology. I propose to settle them near my home, the cathedral in Baltimore, so that they can be clergy for the church and give dignity to the divine service. This is a great and important event for our diocese, but it is only unfortunate that we owe such a great benefit to the sad catastrophe in France.” Shea, History, p. 65, 66. Catholic World, vol. I, p. 3. Shea, History, pp. 69–72. The names of these six missionaries of the hierarchical organization of Roman Catholicism in America are as follows: Flaget, who was subsequently bishop of Louisville, Dubois - subsequently bishop of New York, David - subsequently bishop of Moricastro, Marechal - archbishop of Baltimore, Dubourg - bishop of New Orleans and archbishop of Besançon; Cheverus was later Bishop of Boston, Archbishop of Bordeaux and Cardinal. Shea, History, p. 70. Spalding, Sketches of the Early Catholic Missions of Kentucky; Shea, History, p. 68–69. Catholic World, vol. I, p. 5. Murray, History, p. 222. Murray, History, p, 223. Murray, History, p. 223; Shea, History, p. 89. Murray, History, p. 226. “The United States became an ecclesiastical province with its bishops, a growing body of clergy, and a Catholic population of more than two hundred thousand souls. In the midst of these happy circumstances, God recalled his faithful servant. At the ripe old age of eighty-one years, on December 3, 1815, died Dr. Carrol, equally valiant as a man, as a Catholic, as a patriot, as a Jesuit, as a bishop, as an archbishop, and as the father and founder of the American Church,” says the Catholic eulogist-historian. Ibidem. Shea, History, pp. 93–100. Murray, History, pp. 221, 233, 242, 244. This movement gained especially dangerous proportions in New York. Having encountered intransigence in this regard in the bishop, the trustees decided to force him to do so by reducing his salary. But they were mistaken about their opponent. Bishop Dubois, one of the French exiles, met this measure with the following response: “Gentlemen, you can give me a salary or not. I don't need much. I can live in the basement or attic. But whether I come out of the basement to you, or come down from my attic, I will still be your bishop!” Murray, History, p. 244. These dioceses are as follows: 1) Baltimore, embracing the state of Maryland and the District of Columbia; 2) Boston, which embraced six New England states; 3) New York embraced the state of New York and half of the state of New Jersey; 4) Philadelphia, which embraced the states of Pennsylvania, Delaware and half of New Jersey; 5) Bardstown, which embraced the states of Kentucky and Tennessee; 6) Charleston, which embraced North and South Carolina and Georgia; 7) Richmond, which embraced the state of Virginia and was governed by the Archbishop of Baltimore; 8) Cincinnati, which embraced the states of Ohio, Michigan and the Northwest Territory, and 9) New Orleans, which embraced the states of Louisiana, Mississippi and Missouri. Shea, History, pp. 109 and 110. Murray, History, p. 236, “These learned gentlemen left the presence of the prelates filled with reverence and wonder. We appeared, they said, before the solemn tribunal of justice, but we never had less confidence in ourselves than when we entered this august assembly. Ibidem. Thirty-eight definitions were developed at the council. Here are some of them: I. Bishops have the right to send to any part of their dioceses or to recall any priest consecrated or installed within the diocese ... V. Since lay trustees have often abused the power given to them by civil law, the council expresses the desire that bishops should not consent to the building or consecration of a church unless the matter of property is properly accomplished for them. VI. Since some laity, and especially trustees, have arrogated to themselves the right of patronage and even management in some churches, the council declares that these claims are unfounded and prohibits their execution on any basis... IX. The Council instructs bishops to discourage their flocks from reading Protestant translations of the Bible, and to recommend the use of the Douay version ... XXXIV. Since many young Catholics, especially those born of poor parents, are in danger of losing faith and morality due to the lack of teachers to whom they could safely entrust their education, the council expresses the desire that schools be founded where youth could perceive the principles of faith and morals together with human knowledge... XXXVI. According to the wise advice of Pope Leo XII addressed to the Archbishop of Baltimore, a society should be founded for the dissemination of good books. See Concilia Provincialia Baltimori habita. Baltimore, 1851. Shea History, pp. 125–127. Shea, History, p. 128. “These discoveries, says the historian, gave the bishops inexpressible consolation in their labors.” Archbishop Whitefield, in his report to the council of the Roman Association de propaganda fide, writes: “The miracles, if I may so venture to express myself, which have been and are daily being performed in my diocese are a source of consolation to me amid the difficulties with which I often have to contend... The true Catholic spirit distinguishes Maryland and the District of Columbia from all other States of the Union... Conversions of Protestants in good health are also numerous, and not a week passes, and often not a day, without our priests were not called to the bedside of some sick person who wants to renounce error and die in the bosom of the church.” Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, V, 711. With the fourth definition, the council proposes the following method for electing bishops: “When a see is vacant, votes must be taken from other bishops in the province in order to determine which priests should be presented to the Supreme Pontiff for the see. If a provincial council is to meet three months after the death of a prelate, the bishops must wait until then to elect persons to represent it. Bishops desiring a coadjutor must also submit to a vote of their colleagues assembled at the council the names of the clergy nominated for the post of coadjutor. Since the meeting of the council may be postponed, each bishop should keep two sealed packets containing the names of at least three priests who in his opinion are worthy to succeed him. On the death of the prelate, the vicar general must present one of the packages to the archbishop and the other to the nearest bishop. The latter, having noticed the names given by the late prelate, must forward him with his remarks to the archbishop. The Metropolitan then writes to all his suffragans, subjecting them to examination of the three names proposed by the late prelate, or three others if he finds serious objections to the first; and then each bishop writes personally in the Propaganda, giving his remarks about the three or six persons represented. Upon the death of the metropolitan, the dean of suffragans must take over the duties that would otherwise fall on the archbishop. If the deceased prelate has not left in his papers the appointment of a successor, then the nearest bishop presents three names to the archbishop, and the latter presents them to his suffragans, with three other names, if the first do not inspire confidence in him.” Shea, History, p. 131. Shea, History, p. 130–137. New departments were opened in Nashville for the state of Tennessee, in Nashetz for the state of Mississippi, in Dubuque for the territory of Wisconsin. The Council proposed to establish a see in Pittsburgh or western Pennsylvania, but this proposal was found premature. Bishop Dubois in New York was given a coadjutor. Shea, History, p. 149. This idea was obviously prompted by the fruitful activities of the famous Irish abstinence preacher, priest Theobald Mathew, who at that time was conducting a successful campaign in Ireland against drunkenness. In 1849, he visited America, “gathering thousands of faithful there under the banner of sobriety.” Shea, History, p. 151. Shea, History, pp. 152–154 New bishoprics were opened: in Little Rock for the state of Arkansas; in Chicago for Illinois; in Milwaukee for Wisconsin and in Hartford for Connecticut and Rhode Island. Shea, History, p. 154, 155. "Ardentibus votia plausu consensuque unanimi." See Concilia provincialia., p. 250. The Catholic historian Pius, setting out this definition, says that “this solemn proclamation, even then, could convince the holy fathers of the desire of the church for a dogmatic definition of the glorious preeminence of the Mother of God. The veneration by the faithful of the Immaculate Conception, moreover, is not a thing today in North America.” The historian proves that the American church, earlier than others, recognized the necessity and truth of the subsequently approved dogma of the Immaculate Conception. Shea. History, pp. 155–157. Shea, History, p. 157, 158. This letter, dated January 18, 1849, reads: “Our seventh Baltimore Council is scheduled to meet on May 7 of this year. We are perhaps too bold, Holy Father, when we ask and hope that, if possible, the shadow of Peter might someday overshadow us in passing and give us new strength and vigor. How great would be the honor and support of our rising church! What joy and what delight, what fruits and pledges of fellowship throughout our republic would have been had your holiness, yielding to our unanimous desires, even stood among the prelates assembled from the remotest reaches of North America, and deigned to console and honor us and our flocks with your apostolic counsel and paternal blessing! The council could easily, if your holiness so directs, be postponed until a more convenient time, and as far as our property allows, nothing will be lacking in order to make everything convenient and pleasing to our Holy Father.” Shea, History, p. 166. Consilia Provincialia Baltimori habita, p. 274. New departments were opened: in Wheeling for the eastern part of Virginia; in Savannah for the state of Georgia; in St. Paul for the Minnesota territory; and the vicariate of Santa Fe for New Mexico, then just annexed to the United States. In addition, a new bishopric was added to the number of bishoprics in Monterey, in California, which after the war of 1846 was ceded by Mexico to the United States. Shea, History, p. 167. Murray, History, p. 260. Murray, History, p. 259. Murray, History, p. 301. The dioceses that were reopened were: Erie, separated from Pittsburgh; Burlingon and Portland - from Boston; Brooklyn and Newark - from New York.; Covington - for eastern Kentucky; Quincy, who increased the composition of the bishopric in the province of St. Louis; Natchitoches is in the province of New Orleans, and finally Upper Michigan is made a vicariate. Shea, History, p. 176. The spirit of native exclusivity is very strong among Americans and it found famous expression in President Monroe, whose typical expression, “America for Americans only,” was called the “Monroe doctrine.” Based on this teaching, the Americans even reacted unsympathetically to Lesseps’s famous project to dig through the Isthmus of Panama, fearing the establishment of French influence in the country. Murray, History, p. 240, 241. Riots occurred in other parts of the country, especially in Puritan New England. There were also attempts to set fire to Catholic churches in New York, but the arsonists were met with gunfire from the Catholics. Ibidem, pp. 244, 249. This interesting letter reads like this in a Russian translation from the Latin original: Illustris et Honorabilis Vir, salatem: “Since our revered brother Castanus, Archbishop of Theban (Thebanorum), accredited as our envoy and nuncio of the apostolic seat at the imperial court in Brazil, received instructions from us to visit those countries (per isteas transeat regiones, i.e., the United States), we at the same time gave him a special instruction so that in our name he would appear before your nobility (Nobilitatem tuam conveniat) and give you our letter, tell you our greatest congratulations and together express and testify in fiery words our spiritual feelings for you. We believe it is certain that these friendly feelings of ours will be pleasant to you, and we least of all doubt that you will accept favorably the said revered brother, adorned with valiant qualities of mind and heart, due to your excellent love of mankind. And since we have been given by divine commission the care of the Lord's flock in the universe, we cannot let this opportunity pass without seriously asking you to extend your protection to all Catholics living in these countries and to protect them always with your strength and authority. Being confident that your nobility is willing to yield to our desires and requests (desideriis ac postulationibus), we do not fail to offer our humble prayers to Almighty God, that He may grant you, a brilliant and honored man, the gifts of His grace, pour down upon you every kind of true happiness and unite us in perfect love. Datum Romae apud S. Petrum, die 31 martii, anno 1853, Pontificatus nostri anno septimo. Pius P. P. IX." See Shea, History, p. 497, 498. Murray, History, p. 302. In Cincinnati, one German newspaper appeared at this time every day specifically to attack the nuncio and called him a “hyena”, “man-exterminator”, “murderer”, “bloodthirsty Bolognese dog”, and concluded their articles with a furious and bloodthirsty question: “is there really no bullet, no dagger for a monster that has no equal on earth?” Murray, History, p. 303. In New York, the organ of revolutionaries also honored him with similar epithets, and even a murder plot was drawn up. Ibidem, p. 302. Murray, History, p. 303. The Know-Nothings developed a special constitution that defined the purpose of society and the plan of action. The 1st paragraph reads: “The purpose of this organization is to counteract the insidious policy of the Church of Rome and every other foreign influence against the institutions of our country, by filling all offices with native people, or appointing to them only native Protestant citizens.” By their oath, members of the society especially pledged not to allow “all Roman Catholics and all foreigners” to hold positions. Murray, History, p. 304. In the person of one of the first-class painting artists in New York, namely Mr. Carter, auto had the pleasure of meeting the living history of the entire Know-Nothing movement. Being an Irish emigrant and having lived through three-quarters of the present century, he personally, as a Catholic and an Irishman, lived through this era of unrest and from his experience conveyed to the author many of the characteristic features of the movement. Murray, History, p, 304. Shea, History, p. 505; Murray, p. 305. This document, so common among Americans of the barbaric arbitrariness of a riotous mob, reads as follows: “Since we have reason to believe that we owe the pleasure of this trial to one John Babst, O. I., a Catholic priest, we have determined that should the said Babst again be on the soil of Ellsworth, we express our gratitude to him for his kind intervention in our public schools and attempt to drive the Bible out of them by preparing for him a whole pair of new clothes, which cannot be found in any tailor’s shop, and that he, thus dressed, should be given a free ticket to leave Ellsworth after the first rallyroad operation that will be performed on him.” This resolution, in the barbaric jargon of Lynch Law, was later published in local newspapers. Shea, History, p. 502. It would be impossible, writes one eyewitness, to reproduce all the terrible blasphemies and outrages of that terrible night; but everything that the imagination can imagine besides mutilation and bloodshed was committed by ugly scoundrels. The abuse lasted two hours, and it was cold rain the entire time. Shea, History, p. 503. Murray, History, p. 308. Fort Vine, Alton and Market. Murray, History, 309–311. At the end of the war, there was only one priest in the diocese of Charleston, South Carolina, and most of the churches were razed to the ground. “The war had a most destructive influence on our ancient Maryland Catholic families,” notes Archbishop Baltimore. Murray, History, p. 314. Concilium Plenarium Baltimorense II. Spalding, The life of Archbishop Spalding, New-York, 1874. Archbishop Spalding was president of the second full Baltimore Council and one of the most famous fighters for the cause of Roman Catholicism. His extensive biography, compiled by his nephew, the learned Bishop of Pioria Spalding, is replete with a lot of interesting material for the history of the Roman Catholic Church from the era of the Civil War and the Second Council. Shea, History, p. 445. Murray, History, p. 314, 315. Murray, History, p. 315, These archdioceses are: Boston, Philadelphia, Milwaukee and Santa Fe. Spalding, The Religious Mission of the Irish people. 3 edition, New-York 1880. p. 136–137. Shea, History. p. 165, 166. Shea, History, pp. 169–171. Murray, History of the Catholic Church in the United States, p. I. The Catholic historian considers this saying of Pope Pius IX so fair that he chose it as the epigraph for his work. Archbishop Spalding, in his message to the bishops of March 19, 1866, says: Nos, auctoritate Nobis hac in parte commissa, hisce praesentibus literis indieimus ac Convocamus Secundum Concilium Plenarium Beltimorense, in Mitropolitana Nostra Ecclesia inchoandum Dominica prima Octobris anni currentis. Catholic World, Vol. VII, p. 619. Catholic World, Vol. VII, p. 620. Catholic World, Vol. VII, p. 623. Catholic World, Vol. VII, 624. Concilii Plenarii Baltimorensis II Acta et Decreta. Baltimorae, 1877. pp. XVIII–XXV. Murray, History, p. 312. Catholic World, Vol. IX, p. 497. Catholic World, Vol. IX, p. 498. Catholic World, Vol. IX, p. 498–499; Vol. VII, p. 625. Catholic World, Vol. IX, p. 499. These decrees are as follows: Titulus 1: De Fide Orthodoxa, deque erroribus serpentibus. II: De Hierarchia et Regimine Ecclesiae. III: De Personis Ecclesiasticis. IV: De Ecclesiis Bonisque Ecclesiasticis tenendis tutandisque. V: De Sacramentis. VI: De Cultu Divino. VII: De Diaciplinae Uniformitate promovenda. VIII: De Ragularibus et Monialibus. IX: De Juventute instituenda, Pieque Erudienda. X: De Salute animarum Efficacius Promovenda. XI: De Libris et Ephemeridibus. XII: De Societatibus secretis. XIII: De novarum Sedium Episcopalium erectione, deque Candidatorum Praesentatione. XIV: De Efficaciori Decratorum Baltimorensium executione pro movenda. We have at hand the second complete edition of the acts of the council, the full title of which is: Concilii Plenarii Baltimorensis Il in Ecclesia Metropolitana Baltimorensi a die VII ad diem XXI Octobris A. D MDCCCLXVI habiti et a sede Apostolic recogniti Acta et Decreta. Editio Altera mendis expurgata. Excudebat Joannes Murphy Summi Pontificis, atque Archiepiscopi Baltimorensis Typographus. Baltimore. MDCCCLXXII. The entire publication is in Latin, except for the pastoral letter of the prelates of the council to the clergy and people, which is published in English. A large Appendix is ​​attached to the acts and decrees, containing amendments and instructions from the Roman Congregatio de Propaganda Fide and other supreme institutions of Rome. Acta et Decreta, pp. 3–33. Barnum, Romanism as it is, pp. 417–419. Acta et Decreta, Capnt III, p, 14. "Statuimus igitur, ut Duacensis versio, quae in omnibus ecclesiis quarum fideles Anglice loquuntur recepta, et a praedecessoribus nostris usui fidelium merito proposita est, omnino retneatur." § 16. “The Douay Bible” is the popular name of the English translation of the Bible, made in accordance with the Vulgate and approved by the University of Douay in France in 1609. Barnum, Romanism, p. 412. Catholic World, Vol. IX, p. 500. Acta et Decreta, p. 21, § 24. Acta et Decreta, pp. 22–33. Acta et Decreta, p. 30, § 36. Acta et Decreta, p. 32, § 39. “Hortamurque eos in Christo, ut nulla, vel indirecta ratione, Spiritismo faveant, et ne quidem ex curiositate ejus circulis unquam adsistant.” Qui domumenim diaboli ingrediuntur, timeant ne machinationibus ejus decipiantur imperioque subjicisntur.” Acta et Decreta, p. 33, § 41. De Hierarchia et Regimine Ecclesiae. Acta et Decreta p. 34–38. Acta et Decreta, p. 37, § 46. Atque ita plane decebat, ne Catholico Orbi ulla oriretur occasio dubitaudi, impulsu fortasse civilium potestatum, vel partium studio, duci quandoque posse in universali procuratione gerenda sedem illam, ad quam propter potiorem principalitatem necesse est omnem ecclesiam conveire. Acta et Decreta, p. 38, § 47. Praeclarissimis hisce Summi Pontifucis verbis hujus Concilii Patres plenum praebuerunt mentis cordisque assensum. Ibidem, p. 39. Acta et Decreta, Titulus II, Cap. II, p. 40–45. Catholic World, Vol. IX, p. 502. Acta et Decreta, p. 49, § 61. Acta et Decreta, Tit. II, caput IV, pp. 50–53. Acta et Decreta, pp. 59–62. Negligentiam suffraganeorum in casibus a jure statutis supplet. Appellationes a sententia suffraganeorum, juxta regulas a sunctis canonibus definitas, recipit. Acta et decreta, p. 61, 62, § 81. Acta et Decreta, pp. 69–75, Catholic World, Vol. IX, p. 503. Acta et Dacreta, p. 106, § 174. Acta et Decreta, p. 108, § 178. Acta et Decreta, pp. 108–110, § 179–181 Acta et Decreta, p. 132, § 240. Acta et Decreta, §§ 266, 267, 311, 373. Appendix, X, De vino genuino in Missa adhibendo. Cp. Catholic World, Vol. IX, p, 506. Acta et Decreta, §297–298. Literae Pactorales concilii Patrum, lingua vulgari, ad clerum populumque sibi commissum directae. Acta et Decreta, p, XXXIX. Acta et Decreta, §§ 334–338. De Disciplinae Uniformitate Promovenda. Acta et Decreta. Titulus. VII, pp. 198–208. "Recurrant Episcopi quorum interest, in particulari, expositis suae petitionis rationibus", Acta et Decreta, p. 199, 2nd note to § 383. Acta et Decreta, § 396, p. 205. Acta et Decreta, § 396. The prelates found it necessary to confirm this decree in their pastoral letter, where it takes an even stricter form. “We consider it our duty to warn our people against those amusements that can easily become an occasion for sin, and especially against those fashionable dances, which, as they are performed at the present time, outrage every sense of delicacy and decency, and are associated with the greatest danger to morality. We also solemnly warn him against the great abuses which arise in the form of fairs, picnics and excursions, in which, as too often happens, the name of charity is made a cover for a multitude of sins. We prohibit all Catholics from taking part in them, unless they are performed in accordance with the rules of the bishop and under the direct supervision of their respective pastors." Literae Pastorales. Acta et Decreta, p. XLVI. 1 Tim. 5:8. Acta et Decreta, § 495. Catholic Publication Society, in New York, Barclay Street. This society currently serves as the richest Catholic book depository in the country, and the author is indebted to it for many books that he used for his work and which are not in other book depositories. It owes its foundation to the famous founder of the American Peacock Order, the Venerable Hecker, the present publisher of The Catholic World. Acte et Decreta, § 500. 501. Acta et Decreta, Cap. III, §§ 502–504. Literae Pastorales, in Acta et Decreta p. XLI. Literae Pastorales, in Acta et Decreta, p. XLII. Titulus XII, De Societatibus Secretis. Acta et Decreta, pp. 260–265 §§ 511–523. "Comprehendi Bullis Pontificiis". Acta et Decreta, Appendix XV, pp. 300–301. Literae Pastorales Concilii Patrium, lingua vulgari, ad clerum populumque sibi commissum directae, in Acta et Decreta, p. XXVIII. Literae pastorales, § III. Relations of the Church and the State. Acta et Decreta, pp. XXXIII and XXXIV. Catholic World, Vol. IX, p. 511. Acta et Decreta, Titulus VIII, Da Regularibus et Monialibus. Cap. I, § 405, p. 209. Murray, History of the Catholic Church in the United States, p. 349. Murray, History, p. 72. In 1528, two Franciscans, Bishop Juarez and Brother John de Palos, died in Florida. It is believed that they died either from starvation in the forest, or from an Indian club. Ibidem, "Our first martyrs". See "Section One" on Jesuit missions. Shea, History, p, 34, 327; Murray, History, p. 148. Murray, History, pp. 227–231. Murray, History, p. 195, 202, 203. Keim's Washington and its Environments, pp. 236 – 240. Washington, 1881. Derras, History of the Catholic Church, Vol. IV, p. 512. "Inspired by the Divine Spirit, says the bull, we abolish and destroy the Society of Jesus, its functions, houses and institutions." Ibidem. Cretineau-Joly, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jesus, Vol. VI, pp. 280–282. Paris, 1846. Cretineau-Joly, Histoire, p. 282. Gretineau-Joly, Histoire, p. 282. Murray, History, p. 367. See also above in the chapter on the growth of Roman Catholicism. Murray, History, p. 230. In Boston for example. in 1790 there were only one hundred Catholics and they consisted of three nationalities - French, Irish and American. Murray, History, p. 198. Murray, History, pp. 364, 368. Murray, History, p. 207. Currently, the Jesuits have institutions and churches in New York, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, New Orleans, Buffalo, Chicago, San Francisco and many other cities, Woodstock Callege in Maryland, their House of Studies and the main theological seminary of the society in the United States. The Jesuits preside over 14 colleges in the American Republic, among which the most notable are: the College at Georgetown, founded in 1791, the most ancient and venerable seat of Catholic learning in the country; college St. John, in New York, the oldest in the middle states (founded 1841); College of the Holy Cross (1843) in Massachusetts, College of St. Xavier (1831); in Cincinnati; college St. Joseph (1830) in the southern reaches of the country near Mobile, on the Gulf of Mexico; St. Louis University (1829) is the oldest Catholic college in the Mississippi Valley, and Santa Clara College (1851) is the oldest Catholic college on the Pacific coast of the continent. See Murray, History, p. 363. A strange fate is connected with the Order of the Sulpicians, the Russian prince Dmitry Golitsyn. Prince Golitsyn is one of those victims who are torn from the Orthodox Church by whirlwinds of mental passions alien to Russian nature. He was born in 1770 to an Orthodox Christian named Prince Dmitry Alekseevich Golitsyn, who had as his wife the Protestant Countess Amalia von Schmettau. His father was a passionate follower of French philosophy, fashionable at that time, was in friendly and close relations with Voltaire and Diderot, and considered his highest ambition to educate his son in these “sacred” ideas. A gentle and kind-hearted boy by nature, therefore, from an early age he was subjected to the cold pressure of soulless philosophy. But his nature was of a completely different type and resisted alien influence. As if seeking protection, he surrendered entirely to the influence of his sentimental mother, who not only did not sympathize with the philosophers who constantly filled her husband’s living room, but, by force of reaction, surrounded herself with Jesuit fathers and secretly accepted the Roman Catholic faith. Having accepted Roman Catholicism herself, she naturally tried to turn her son to the same path, and with the help of the Jesuits and her maternal influence, she managed to achieve her goal. The boy also accepted the Roman Catholic faith. Now a wide field of corresponding activity has opened up for his melancholy and sentimental nature. Listening to the tempting stories of the Jesuits about the world activities of the order, about the dangers threatening religion, about the storm of political and philosophical passions that agitate humanity, about the need to devote his strength to fighting them, the boy completely surrendered to religious dreams and began to ask his mother for permission to enter some monastic order. His mother agreed, but his father did not want to hear about it and enlisted him as an adjutant in the Austrian army, hoping that the pleasures of an officer's life would disperse his strange dreams. But the young prince’s nature was irrevocably inclined towards these dreams, and at the first opportunity he was ready to fulfill them, even contrary to the will of his father. Seeing this, his father tried to entertain him in other ways and sent him to travel. America was then just beginning to develop its young republican forces, and Prince Golitsyn, thinking that the republican spirit would best refresh his son's head, sent him to the United States to study the political life of the young republic. This, however, finally decided the fate of the young prince. Upon arrival in America, he immediately fell into the hands of ex-Jesuit Bishop Carrol and the brethren, who, noticing the inclination of the rich and noble Russian prince, completely turned his head. He decided to stay in America forever, devote his life to serving the Roman Catholic Church, and three years after his arrival in America, it was in 1795 that he entered the Sulpician Order, having previously completed a theological course at their college. All his father’s threats and his mother’s pleas to return to Europe were in vain; he forever decided to devote his life to the American church. He, as a missionary, went to the desert country of the Allegheny Mountains and established his residence there, using his religious influence and material well-being to strengthen Catholic colonization there. He spent hundreds of thousands of dollars from his huge inheritance for the needs of the church and died in 1840, receiving the title of “Apostle of the Allegans.” He owns the highly valued work “Defense of Catholic Principles” in Catholic literature. His memory is highly revered in the Roman Catholic and especially Irish populations of the United States, and an extensive literature is devoted to him. See eg. Brownson, Life of prince D. Gallitzine, N. Y. 1872. Heyden, A memoir of Gallitzine; several articles in Catholic World and several pages in general courses on the history of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States. Murray, History, p. 368. Trappists arrived in the United States in 1805. Murray, History, p. 370. The Lazarists, or mission congregation, were introduced into the United States in 1816. At the same time, precisely in 1805, the Dominican Order, which began in the 16th century but subsequently ceased, resumed its activities. Ibidem, pp. 355, 356. Murray, History, p. 372. Murray, History, p. 373. Murray, History, p. 374. Murray, History, p. 375. The arrival of the order in California, by some chance, almost coincides with the discovery of the richest gold mines in it, the news of which spread like lightning throughout the world. Murray, History, p. 376. Murray, History, p. 378. According to statistics from 1876, there were 26,000 students in their institutions. Murray, History, p. 378. Murray, History, pp. 237, 380. Full name of the order; Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate. Murray, History, p. 381. Murray, History, p. 382. Congregation of Xaverian Brothers, named after its founder Xavier, in Belgium in 1839. Murray, p, 382. See statistical table in Murray, History, p. 384. The Paulists or the full name of the Congregation of the Missionary Priests of St. Paul the Apostle. For this order see Murray, History, pp. 383, 388–369. Sadliers, Directory, 1881, p. 137. The author owes a lot to this magazine when compiling his work. It served us not only as a rich encyclopedia of historical material, but also as the best indicator of the moral and social position of Roman Catholicism in the United States. The founder of this society is the same Venerable Hecker, head of the order and editor of The Catholic World magazine. This character of Roman Catholicism, in our opinion, explains the fact that it became the religion of the Romanesque peoples, distinguished by feminine receptivity and passion, and the most striking feature of its femininity was expressed even dogmatically in the deification of the Mother of God, approved by the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. Catholic World, Vol. XIX, p. 369. Murray, History, p. 395–398. Murray, History, p. 398. An interesting document is associated with this period, explaining the position of women's orders in the Union. When New Orleans was handed over to the United States, the Ursulines feared for the safety of their property under the new government. To formally secure it for themselves, they turned to the President of the United States Jefferson and, to their great joy, received a very favorable response, which at the same time characterizes the relationship between church and state in America. – The President wrote the following: “The President of the United States to Sister Teresa de St. Xavier Farjon, mistress, and nuns of the Order of St. Ursula, in New Orleans: I have received, holy sisters, your letter in which you express concern for the property given to your establishment by the former government of Louisiana. The principles of the Constitution and Government of the United States are a sure guarantee to you, that it will be kept sacred and inviolable to you, and that your institution will be permitted to be governed according to its own voluntarily adopted rules, without interference from civil authority. Whatever the diversity in the shades of religious opinions of our fellow citizens, the beneficent goal of your institution cannot be indifferent to anyone; and its promotion of the good ends of society, by directing its young members in the way they should go, cannot fail to secure for it the protection of the government under which it is placed. Rest assured that it will receive every kind of patronage that my post can imagine. I greet you, holy sisters, with friendship and respect. Th. Jefferson." See Murray, History, p. 396–397. Catholic World, Vol. XIX, p. 370. Murray, History, p. 401. Murray, History, p. 403. Murray, History, p. 404. Catholic World, Vol. XIX, p. 371. The founder of the community is very popular in the American Catholic world and a large monograph is dedicated to her: White, “The life of Mrs. Seton." See also the biographical sketch of her in Murray, History, p. 416–418. Murray, History, p. 405. Murray, History, p. 406. Murray, History, p. 407. Princess Elizaveta Golitsyna came from the same family of Russian princes Golitsyn, who became famous both for their historical valor and the weakness of their Orthodox principles. She was the cousin of the notorious “Apostle of the Alleghenies,” Prince Dimitri Golitsyn. Her mother was a secret Catholic, constantly surrounded by Jesuit fathers, but she hid this from her daughter for a long time, preparing her, however, to accept the “holy faith” through Jesuit teachers. The princess's young heart foresaw the trap and fought; and when her mother finally revealed her religious secret to her and began to openly admonish her, the young princess even solemnly swore never to change her faith. But the Jesuit fathers had already done their main task, the princess’s soul was already in their hands, and the oath itself was only the last futile effort of the unfortunate princess to save her Orthodox faith. Under the influence of her mother’s constant admonitions and under the pressure of Jesuit logic, the princess finally apparently hesitated, and at the funeral of one Jesuit she clearly heard some mysterious voice telling her: “You hate Catholics, but the day will come when you yourself will be a Catholic.” The princess bitterly mourned her inexorable fate for the last time and truly accepted the Roman Catholic faith. Once broken and directed in a different direction, the strong nature of the princess with all the passion of a desperate heart gave itself over to a new direction. She entered the Order of the Ladies of the Sacred Heart and became a seeker of religious adventures, with which she obviously tried to suppress the last movements of the Orthodox heart. The abbess of the order sent her to America, where a branch of the order already existed. The princess immediately set off on a long journey and in 1840 founded a mission and school among the Pottawatami Indian tribe in Kansas. But life among the red-skinned sons of the Far West, with all its romantic tempting, could not amuse the high-society heroine for long, and she was very glad when the Archbishop of New York, the famous and tireless champion of Roman Catholicism in the country, Yuis, invited her to New York to found a higher women's college, appointed specifically for the upper classes of the country. Having founded the college, Mrs. Golitsyna devoted herself entirely to the passion of travel and constantly traveled around the country - either to the Far West to visit the Indian mission, or to the Far South to visit the institutions of the order in New Orleans. From New Orleans she even went to Europe twice, and for the pleasure of looking at Paris she neglected all the difficulties and inconveniences of the then ocean voyage, and finally died from the yellow fever that raged in New Orleans during her last visit to this American Paris. – Compare: Shea, History, pp. 413–417; Murray, History, p. 407. According to statistics from 1876, there were 44 women's orders in the United States, in addition to the above: Sisters of St. Joseph; Sisters of the Holy Cross; Sisters of Charity; Sisters of the Good Shepherd; Sisters of Our Lady; Sisters of Providence; School Sisters of Our Lady; Presentation Nuns; Gray Nuns; Sisters of Charity; Servite Sisters; Poor Virgins of Jesus Christ; Little Sisters of the Poor; Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis; Sisters of St. Clare; Benedictines; Ladies of the Incarnate Word; Sisters of Our Lady of Charity; Daughters of the Cross; Oblate sisters of Providence (black women); Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin; Sisters of Our Lady of Namur; Sisters of the Holy Names; Sisters of St. Anne; Sisters of the Beggars of St. Francis; Sisters of the Precious Blood; Sisters of Christian Charity; Sisters of the Agonizing Heart of Jesus; Sisters of the Holy Childhood; Servant Sisters of the Immaculate Heart; Sisters of the Humility of Mary; Sisters of the Immaculate Conception and Sisters of the Holy Family. See statistical table in Murray, p. 415. Murray, History, p. 578. Explaining the reason for the successful spread of monastic orders in America, a Catholic writer says: “This extraordinary success is indeed worthy of surprise, since the American mind, with its ideas of freedom and independence, seems completely unsuited to that kind of religiosity, where the vow of obedience requires the complete submission of the individual will. This apparent contradiction can be explained by taking into account the actual character of religious orders. In practice they represent the most perfect form of democratic government on earth. Abbots are elected by members of the order and only for a certain period of time. During this time, their power is limited by a code of rules that everyone agrees to obey. This feature, I think, is what makes religious orders so prolific in this free and enlightened country.” Father Nilus S. R. priv. Murray, History, p. 382. As can be seen from “Elenchus antistitum ac Theologorum qui Cenciliointerfuerunt”, only a small part of theologians do not have the addition of mysterious letters to their names (C. I., S. S. S., O. S. V., etc.), indicating their belonging to religious orders of various denominations. See Acta et Decreta, pp. XXIII–XXV. Sadliers, Catholic Directory for 1881, see statistical table p. 25. The North American Review, Jan. 1876, article “Religion in America. 1776–1876." You might be interested in: