30) Dr. Julius Mayer.

Die christliche Ascese. Ihr Wesen und ihre historische Entfaltung. Freiburg im Breisgau. 1894. The author of this pamphlet (SS. IV48), a Catholic theologian, in the “Preface” defines the essence and importance of the subject of his study. “Perfect following of Jesus,” he says, through the implementation of the three evangelical councils—Christian asceticism in the narrow sense—has always been regarded in the church as the noblest flower of a truly Christian life.” Hence, an attempt to trace the earliest manifestations of Christian asceticism, to consider the factors that influenced its development is of very important importance, especially now, when negative criticism, with all the means of science at its disposal, seeks to present asceticism as a phenomenon completely alien to Christianity, introduced into it from the outside. In the proposed brochure, the author sets out to prove that asceticism, as it was revealed along with the historical development of Christianity in the first century, did not penetrate into the church from the outside, but arose independently from the Christian spirit of self-denial and denial of the world and from the desire for the highest degree of Christian perfection, and to show that the essence of Christian asceticism corresponds to the inner needs of the human soul. The author, however, himself stipulates that in the proposed brochure he can only outline the main points and general provisions. In the study itself, Mayer first states the fact that monasticism - in various forms - is found everywhere, for everywhere there are people who experience an inner urge to renounce the finite and rise to the eternal. The consciousness that this goal could not be achieved under ordinary conditions prompted people inspired by this desire to retire into solitude in order to satisfy the needs of their hearts here. At the heart of this desire was the need to be reconciled with God, for deep in the heart of man lies the feeling that man, through immersion in the earthly, finite, was separated from the eternal, infinite. The roots of this desire for solitude are deeply embedded in human nature. 1863 It manifests itself in all historical eras, in all phases of human development, in all religions. This indefinite need for solitude, arising from a deep need of the soul, could find its satisfaction in the only regulator of truth - in Christianity; only here could she become a source of salvation for humanity. 1864 Mayer understands Christian asceticism in a double sense - in a broader and more general sense and in a narrower and more specific sense. In a broad sense, Christian asceticism is an orderly and constant, firm desire, assisted by grace (von der Gnade getragenen), of personal free will to overcome all obstacles to the achievement of moral perfection, which confront it in the form of lust, the world and demonic temptations - in connection with the correct use of saving means and with the exercise of virtue. Holy Scripture embraces the entire essence of asceticism in two words: “putting off the old man and putting on the new man in the image of God” (Col 3:9,10; Eph 4:22–24). The teaching about the cross is, at the same time, a teaching about renunciation of the world, about victory over oneself. At all times, Christianity has been deeply convinced that in the person and life of Christ Himself are given for all subsequent times the principles and prototype of the gospel councils - poverty, chastity and obedience - the basis of a life completely dead to the world, wholly devoting himself to the service of God. Following the Lord in this threefold respect is what is meant by Christian asceticism in the narrow sense. 1865 The renunciation of earthly things, of worldly comforts and honor, upon the entry of Christianity into this world and in the first three centuries, for the most part was carried out by itself through the mere adoption of the Christian religion - due to the fact that the young plant took root for the most part not only without any external assistance, but often became directly in unfavorable relations with this external one. A Christian, through his faith and through his morals, separated himself from the rest of society. In apostolic history, the fulfillment of the words of the Lord about the distribution of property to the poor was carried out in the most precise and literal sense (Diary 2:45; 4:32). In this fact, Mauer sees the seed of that ascetic inspiration, which later grew into a mighty tree. 1866 The spirit that animated the first Christians remained, and under other forms brought new fruits - the author here means the implementation of freely chosen virginity, celibacy. Mauer refers to and indicates the testimony of Ignatius B., Tertullian, Cyril of Jerusalem, Lactantius and Jerome. 1867 In cruel times of persecution, there were ascetics who fearlessly testified to their faith in Christ and bravely went to their death. We can rightfully say: if Christianity in the first three centuries drew its world-conquering power from martyrdom, then martyrdom itself received its highest and best power from Christian asceticism. 1868 In the second half of the third century, the desire for complete solitude for undisturbed, internal communication with God intensified. And in this feat, Christians, in Mauer’s opinion, followed the example of Christ, who remained for forty days in the solitude of the desert and subsequently often spent whole nights alone in the desert. 1869 Many, however, rushed into the desert, wanting to save their lives in an era of terrible persecution. 1870 The transition from isolated ascetic life to social life took place quickly. 1871 Anthony V. was the father and head of the anchorites, who through him and under his leadership converted to Cenobites - public life took the place of a solitary life. If Anthony was a creator, then Pachomius was the first legislator of public ascetic life. 1872 Mayer further follows the spread of monasticism in Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia and Egypt, in Cappadocia and Pontus, noting the significance of the “Rules” of Vasily V., and. finally, in Persia. 1873 Ascetic life, developing from the inner essence of Christianity, met, at the same time, already in the existing conditions of that time, factors promoting its development. The Christian desire for self-denial and denial of the world, together with the desire for the highest level of perfection, was supported by “the strong influence of the then philosophy, with the ethical basic features of which Christian asceticism and the monasticism that emerged from it dissolved in the world of Greek education.” 1874 Philosophy, in the form in which it was developed in Alexandria and Rome, took on an increasingly religious-ethical character. 1875 In confirmation and disclosure of this thought, Mayer briefly characterizes - from the side that interests him - the views of Neoplatonism, Philo, the Stoics - Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. 1876 ​​This analysis authorizes Mauer to draw the general conclusion that the religious and philosophical views of that time reveal a deep internal kinship with Christianity and especially with that ascetic direction in which monasticism has its root. The indicated kinship of pagan philosophy with Christianity, especially in ethical terms, significantly prepared the ground for Christian asceticism, so that it could develop faster and easier. The basic ethical principles of Neoplatonism can confidently be considered a factor that significantly contributed to the spread of monasticism. 1877 However, on the other hand, one cannot agree with the views of Keita’a, who argued that Neoplatonism is the source of Christian monasticism (Aus dem Urchristenthum. Zürich, 1878). But if Keita’s view still has grounds for itself and rests on a one-sided emphasis, exaggeration of the factor that actually contributed to Christian asceticism, then the views defended by Weingarten and Hilgenfeld are devoid of any factual basis. “Weingarten sees Christian monasticism as nothing more or less than an imitation of the Egyptian cult of Serapis, a deity, as is known, most revered in Egypt in the Alexandrian era, with whose cult, according to Weingarten, already fully organized monastic life was associated. (Der Ursprung des Mönchtums im nachconstantinischen Zeitalter. SS. 30, 36). Based on Greek papyrus manuscripts that became available in the middle of the 19th century and originating mostly from the then region of Memphis, Weingarten concludes that the vast church of Serapis served as the habitat of a society of Eremites, who lived here for years in inviolable solitude, in complete confinement, which they could not leave; They communicated with the outside world through a small door, διά τοδ θυριδιου. In this institute of servants of Serapis who led a solitary life, Weingarten sees the source of Christian monasticism. Mayer, citing editions of some of Weingarten's manuscripts, argues that Weingarten bases his conclusions on expressions taken from the context of the speech and not in harmony with other data in the same manuscripts. The Catholic scientist considers unproven the position of the Protestant professor that the servants of Serapis spent their lives in complete solitude from the outside world. 1878 This is contradicted by direct facts confirming that the servants of Serapis had intercourse with people, went to the market and so on. 1879 These were simply priests conducting public worship. 1880 Therefore there were few of them, only about seven. For the performance of religious duties they received a certain reward; if he was delayed, they complained to the boss, even to the king himself; it got to the point that the priests threatened to leave the church. There could be no talk here of apathy (απάθεια), which, according to Weingarten, the servants of Serapis strived for as their highest ideal. 1881 Hilgenfeld sees in Buddhism not only the first traces of monasticism, but, at the same time, the source of the entire essence of monasticism in general and specifically Christian monasticism in particular. But Mayer believes that consideration of the essence of Buddhist monasticism and the points of contact between these two forms of ascetic life leads to completely different results. 1882 In modern times, data has been discovered that allows us to assert that some similarities between both forms of monasticism lie only in purely external things, while in some of the most significant aspects deep contrasts can be stated. 1883 Mayer is inclined to admit the influence of Christianity on the development of Buddhist monasticism rather than vice versa. 1884 In general, according to Mayer, all attempts to derive Christian monasticism from pagan models are doomed to failure. In his opinion, the fact that Christian monasticism quickly won over the sympathy of the entire Christian church and quickly spread everywhere speaks against the evidence of attempts to reduce Christian monasticism to various eastern pagan forms of asceticism. Even in those areas of Europe where neither Neoplatonism, nor the cult of Serapis, nor Buddhism could have any influence, we see that monasteries arise quickly and in large numbers. The fact that monasticism, although it arose in the east, but, like Christianity itself, only received its richest and most powerful development in the west, is, in Mauer’s opinion, clear proof that its inner being is not something specifically eastern, but something universally human and Christian. 1885 Mayer ends his pamphlet with a brief sketch of the beginnings and development of monasticism in the West. 1886 Despite its brevity, Mauer's brochure is quite informative. However, she speaks almost exclusively about monasticism alone, that is, as the author himself defines, about asceticism in the narrow sense, but does not concern almost Christian asceticism in the general and broad sense. The relationship between these two forms of asceticism does not seem clear enough to the author. According to the general Catholic point of view, monasticism, according to the author, is the highest form of asceticism, as a desire for the highest Christian perfection. But the question arises: is it fundamentally conceivable to achieve perfection under ordinary conditions of existence, in society? If the matter is only in the degree of self-denial, then, in this case, the highest perfection is possible in the world... But don’t the conditions of ordinary life in the world - in themselves - constitute an insurmountable obstacle to the fulfillment of the requirements of Christian self-denial? Isn’t this why monasticism is the only adequate form of truly Christian asceticism? We would look in vain for answers to these and similar questions from Mauer. Some particular provisions of the analyzed Catholic scientist are about the close historical connection of martyrdom with asceticism, the impossibility of explaining the origin of monasticism from the cult of Serapis and so on. - deserve some attention due to their sufficient validity. In conclusion, we consider it useful, advisable and even necessary to present a description and feasible analysis of the views on asceticism belonging to V.S. Solovyov - in view of their outstanding merits and some features (see below about them), which cannot be treated indifferently by an Orthodox theologian who specifically studies the issue of “asceticism.”