Лекции В МДА В 1916/17 уч. г.

On the principles of historical knowledge According to its etymological meaning, history, from the root means knowledge, knowledge, science. This is the first of knowledge, the first of sciences. And historically it was so: history was the first of the sciences. In any case, history is a science. But is history a science? Science consists of judgments. A judgment expressing a certain law is scientific. Law is, “in general,” a universal and necessary judgment. Their system is science. The connection of phenomena is a law. Science generalizes, generalizes. “Always” and “everywhere” of science has some peculiarity, it refers to the connection of one phenomenon with another. If there is A, then there is a - this is a formula of science. The eternal properties of things do not change whether these things exist or not. Mathematics does not speak about concrete things - Whitehead. Can the history of philosophy discover laws? Are we generalizing historical phenomena? But in the history of philosophy there are only a few. There is only one Kant, this one, and not Kant in general. In natural science, if there is singularity, it is different; a fossil creature, a cross between a man and an ape, one has been found, but perhaps others will be found. In the history of philosophy there is a centripetal force: everything is directed to one point - Kant. The method here is individualization. There is no law here, and the history of philosophy does not want to discover it. It is the task of history to individualize a phenomenon. It is true that every historical phenomenon is subject to a pattern, but this is not interesting to history. Kant is subject to the laws of physiology, but this is of no interest to the historian of philosophy. And psychological laws are not interesting to the history of philosophy. Something new, and not something that is “always” and “everywhere,” is the subject of the history of philosophy. Monads, not instances 69 . But what does the significance of the historical mean? Why do we care about what is “in ourselves” and “about ourselves”? Why is Kant interesting to us? Historical facts are interesting precisely as isolated facts. This is the paradox. But in this case, is history a science? And what is history? History - I know - is the first science, the first knowledge. History is not a “bad” science compared to natural science, but it “fundamentally” denies the legitimacy of science. On the one hand, history is not a science, but on the other hand, historians are scientists, therefore history is a science. We find ourselves in an aporia. How to solve it? It is necessary to deal with that part of Fichte’s science that treats historical knowledge, but at the same time, in connection with natural scientific knowledge. How is history possible? What must be the nature of historical knowledge in order to justify the existence of history as a science? And at the same time preserve the importance of natural science as a science. Newton and the law of gravity, the individual and the universal, the individual and the law, the moment and its universal content - what is more important, more valuable? History or science? Law 70 is conditional; if there are masses, then there is attraction. But are there masses? This does not follow from the existence of the law. We need experience, a single perception, although the universal law does not want it. Therefore, the individual has the right to claim independent study. For science, both the law and the apple become important, as a particular application of the law, and hence, everything particular, the whole of Newton. Natural science knowledge is extensive, historical knowledge is intensive. In history - individualization, selection in depth, in natural science - abstraction, in breadth. The absence of laws in history is its merit, otherwise history is a bad natural science. So, how to construct a concept of science? Everything that we express in the field of natural science will have aspects of the particular, and vice versa - in history, everything individual will be a general concept. aphorism of O. Comte. The principle of abstraction is the principle of Comte's classification. Mathematics → astronomy → physics → chemistry → biology → sociology. There is no room for history. It is part of sociology. In sociology, almost the only reliable patterns are statistical ones. We are convinced of the laws of social life, the establishment of schools designed for a certain number of students. Every social life is supported by two forces, conservative and progressive (Pobedonostsev). History moves through the interaction of these two forces. By discovering these laws of social life, we do nothing for history. On the contrary, in history we want to know not what was natural, but what happened new. As “history” happened, statistics were abolished. There is no history without inner creativity. As society moves forward, statistical patterns are canceled. Currently, a science is emerging - eugenics - about improving the living conditions of mankind. If it develops, then statistical laws will change. Since there is no history, but everyday life, there is a natural pattern of the absence of history, of stagnation. Division of sciences into two classes: 1) – a completed matter, a subject of natural science, and 2) – creativity, subject of history. The laws of 71 sociology are the application of the law of probability. Statistical laws - lack of individuality. The statistical law dominates in society where there is no inner life. – an object (of science) that is motionless. Being is a product established once and for all. and, but in different ways, predominantly. What is mechanics - the science of motion? But this is a movement that does not bring anything new, but is known in advance. The future is entirely determined by the present. The basis of natural science must be some final, absolute, absolutely solid body. The idea of ​​a solid body is also at the heart of mathematics. It is something that changes. The desire of natural science is to understand the world as a system of solid bodies. Non-mechanistic biology is rather related to history. There is some kind of relationship between the general, and the particular. The solid body and spiritual life, thing and personality are the poles of our definition of being. Is it possible to treat a thing as a person? - you can, but this is idolatry, and treating a person as a thing is immorality. Rome. 1: . Absolute Reality. The human face is a subject of history. What is the characteristic manifestation of humanity? We call the totality of energy culture. The sciences about culture, about the human spirit, are humanitarian. Nomographic and idiographic sciences (Windelbandt and Rickert; single). The sciences of the spirit ≈ (a sign of approximate equality) the sciences of culture ≈ the sciences of man ≈ the idiographic sciences ≈ the sciences of the person ≈ the individual. Natural sciences ≈ natural sciences ≈ nomographic sciences ≈ general ≈ things. Spirit is the highest manifestation of human personality. Psychology belongs to the natural sciences. How to distinguish an object of culture from an object of nature? The goal-setting will of man makes natural objects objects of culture. There is an infinite number of individuals, and there should be many sciences. But there is some kind of unity in cultural objects. The individual is united in a more general one, which is also a unit. Individual goals are united in common ones, etc., all in one - in God. The unity of historical science is possible because there is a unity of culture - the purposefulness of individual phenomena. Causality and purposefulness are the main categories of natural science and history. The unity of science is the unity of the goal for which it selects means - methods, techniques, categories, etc. The idea of eternal recurrence must be inherent in natural science; mechanism - cyclic repetition. The time of Epicurus is the repetition of combinations of atoms. Combination of atoms Fr. Nietzsche's idea of ​​eternal recurrence. This idea is significantly related to the natural science worldview. The law of second thermodynamics - all energy degrades, spoils, becomes less capable. Not creativity, but dying - this law contradicts the natural science worldview. The first law of thermodynamics is that the amount of energy is constant and unchanging. Nature, constancy and immutability. For activity to be new means to be. About nature and culture as a whole (Each proposition of dialectics is true in its place.) Culture is an organized whole, an organism. The concept of the unity of the laws of nature is a worldization, a secularization of the doctrine of Providence, of the One Will. In culture, as in nature, everything is connected, everything is united, it is a single fabric. Consequently, the cultural sciences can also be united. But in science there must be division. The homogeneity of the environment must be broken in order for it to be realized. Delay of volitional impulse. Consciousness is a volitional delay, a mirror reflection of our communication with the environment. If there is A, then there is also a - the formula for the articulation of things - causal dependence. One cause corresponds to one effect, and vice versa - this is the unambiguousness of causality. Certainty of causes - if A, then also B. Irreversibility of the cause - A cannot be B. The centers of cultural goals are persons. The category of history is a proper name. What brings faces together into unity? What is the equivalent of causality in history? What is the oldest history? “Abraham gave birth to Isaac”... The concept of the connection of birth constitutes the soul of history. Further in history there is already a revelation of different sides of born persons. The concept of birth can receive different interpretations: from physical to spiritual. All cultural values ​​are acquired personally: from person to person. The idea of ​​succession is of enormous importance in history. History deals with the new, and the newest is a new face born into the world. And give birth to B, the whole story is an amplification, an expansion of this position. Genealogy is the basis of historical knowledge. Why was genealogy not studied in the recent past and neglected in society? This is nihilism in the strictest sense of the word, the undermining of one’s own roots, like all roots, as if people had fallen to earth from some planet. Numerical identity, identity in number, essentially. The two most similar things will not be identical, but only . On the contrary, one thing, although changing, remains identical. We can only talk about identity in relation to a face. Identity is known directly, from the inside, but we cannot know a thing this way. Knowledge of the clan and connection with it, the feeling of the clan is a necessary condition for the consciousness of oneself connected with the world and culture, with the entire past of humanity; it gives a sense of the reality of one's existence. Kant's phenomenalism is the result of his lack of a sense of gender, biologically speaking. You need to find your place in history, register yourself historically, find your coordinates in history, your genealogical latitude and longitude. We use culture and must pass it on incrementally. The failures of modern education lie in ignorance of the students’ past; healing diseases as well. Chekhov: "The Black Monk". Biophores, biogens, etc. – carriers of hereditary properties Idiological tree – someone who wants to study the roots of an individual. But one can be interested in the genus as a whole. Diversity is a collection of elements considered as one whole. A certain sound is ordered threefold: 1) height, 2) timbre, 3) strength. Korg Kantor showed that a multidimensional variety can be represented in a one-dimensional one. The Gospel genealogy is written down in words, but there is pure consistency in it. What if I could list all my relatives? Genealogy is depicted as a linear series so as not to separate births and modern times. We don't know whose son it is. Double numbering. Official way of recording. Department of Heraldry. This method is not so obvious. After all, the connection is not so clear. Convenience can be restored: family tree. You can also insert biographical information here. Fundamental inconveniences: unsuitability. If, during the research, some relative is found who was previously unknown, then the entire pedigree must be redone. But with a large number of relatives, this is not easy. The simplest principle is decimal: Kinship is eldership, spiritual nourishment (from the word nourish - to be fed), which corresponds to the concept of bodily birth, but not nutrition. Succession of spiritual life. You cannot acquire the ability to pray internally yourself, and not from another person who already knows how. Deep historical tradition. The fate of Paisius (Velichkovsky). He preached asceticism, but was persecuted. The writings of Macarius the Great were not allowed. He collected ascetic works and printed the Philokalia. It caused a storm. He was drowned in the Danube. The Russian “Philokalia” is largely distorted, even in comparison with the Slavic one. Bishop Feofan has a desire (towards simplification), etc. In philosophy, the connection of ideas is important; it is important to establish the dependence of one term on another. The germ plasm is indivisible, it passes from father to son, whether it be spiritual or material. The dependence of the moments of one philosophy on another is the dependence of terms. In spiritual generation, the spiritual principle is transmitted. In philosophies, revelation. A philosophical system is a person’s worldview, the most important manifestation of a person, just as for a poet his poetry is the most important manifestation of his person. A race that renounces its genius perishes. Spiritual energy, the beginning of spiritual life, unites the spiritual race, genealogy, just as germ plasm constitutes the principle of unity of physical genealogy. The seed (Aristotle) ​​creates the unity of a philosophical kind that seeks to express this. The goal of the physical race is genius, after which the race is terminated. A new family, a “new surname” may begin. And the spiritual race has its goal in the genius that most perfectly expressed the generic idea. So, for example, St. Seraphim, from whom there are no direct disciples. Grandfather, father, son = clan. The son breaks away from his father to return to his grandfather. The dialectical course of clan life, which preserves the unity of the clan, necessary for the teleological nature of the clan. Rod may not reach his genius. Then he degenerates. Rod can deliberately abandon genius. The unity of the clan, the unity of fathers and children, is necessary, but for children to be individuals, a separation between children and fathers is also necessary. Opposing the gap has sad consequences: children lose their will, etc. The gap is the key to the historical process. In the judgment of the negation of the negation there is a thesis, but in an enriched form. Otherwise, synthesis is connecting the dots, a thesis with new content. What makes coherence possible for the species while preserving the individuality of the individual? Children are the negation, the antithesis of fathers is the thesis. The negation of the negation of children is a return to the grandfather, that is, it makes it possible for the culture to be coherent. In the history of science, too: after a generation, old theories return. The principle of culture is to pulsate rhythmically. Many generations unite: each member becomes a grandfather. What set of ideas did Schelling evoke and what influence was he under? What are the periods in the development of Schelling's philosophy? What changes in points of view? Idealism is a mechanism. The mechanism is characterized by subordination to external factors, and idealism - by internal ones. Idealism – development, mechanism – stagnation. The internal factor is the mind - superconscious, conscious and subconscious - spirit. Schelling always adheres to the basic principle of idealism, the recognition of the spiritual principle. Schelling is the successor of Fichte, and through him, of Kant. Kant's task is to show that knowledge is possible, and Fichte's task is to show that sensations are the product of the activity of the spirit. For the activity of the mind, something more foreign is necessary, from which it could push off. I – not-I, I Absolute Thinking begins when there is a push. After all, morality begins when there is temptation, the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. I am aware of the small and I am aware of the big. In the small I there must be intellectual intuition, that is, it must discover in itself the large I and that the non-I is the action of the I myself. The big I penetrates deeper and deeper into the I and the non-I in order to merge with it. Kant's last stage is the identity of self-consciousness, transcendental perception, I am I Ivan Karamazov. A dream with a dramatic character. Suppose someone comes up and asks a riddle. We don't know how to solve it. He tells the solution and points out how simple it is. We don't know, and at the same time, we know. Not I am a mystery. And all dialectics too. After all, she asks a question and answers. But the question = the answer, which means that I am big and we both know and don’t know (I am small). For Kant, the big I is a simple formula, devoid of metaphysical reality. In Fichte (I am large) it intensifies, but within the limits of man. In Schelling, the Self approaches God greatly. Intelligent activity is goal-fulfilling. Schelling's task is to explain nature as a kingdom of goals, as something living, an organism, and not a series of shocks. How to accomplish this task? Nature is development, a transition from one state to another. The greatest scope of development. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the discovery of electricity. Poles are extreme ranges. They are internal to the process, and, at the same time, they are opposite. Oerstedt's discovery: deflection of a magnetic needle under the influence of electricity. Schelling suggested this discovery. Electrical polarity. Polarity. A whole range of polarities. The concept of life comes from biology. He associates them with polarity. Ideas are chemical, physical and biological. Lavoisier - theory of combustion, oxidation. The combustion process involves combining a flammable substance with oxygen. Lavoisier interprets chemicals in a dualistic sense. Breathing is burning. Nature is one both metaphysically and empirically. that it is fundamentally one and in experience turns out to be so, Goethe. Metamorphosis of plants states that the entire plant is a modification of one organ, namely the leaf, and the leaf is a modification of the cell. The submandibular bone was also found in humans, therefore, all animals are built according to the same plan. The skull is a modification of one vertebra. This means that the entire device and all departures are the essence of the neutralization of the poles. Not everything has been considered. Inner life, the ability of perceptions and excitability. Haller, Brown. This is the body of natural philosophy. Now soul and spirit. Pre-established harmony is the most minimal unity. It is necessary to pre-establish unity where there is none. The teachings of Spinoza are polarly related to the teachings of Leibniz. Fundamental times of Leibniz's monads from Descartes. For Spinoza, the world stood still. Therefore, the need is filled with Leibniz. Descartes limited spiritual existence to consciousness. Spiritual existence is consciousness, it is essence. And Leibniz says that there can be sleeping monads, which means that existence is not only in consciousness, but also in something else. The task is to interpret everything as the result of spiritual life and, at the same time, avoid stretching it. After all, consciousness cannot be attributed to a glass. But you cannot completely deny it to him, because then you will get a mechanism. The unity of the forces of nature - Humanity is one, says Herder. Nature is interpreted as a kind of creativity, albeit semi-conscious. Physical idealism. Second period. How is creativity carried out when it occurs in the conscious sphere? Aesthetic idealism. Creativity in humanity. Friedrich Schlegel, Novalis, Hoffmann, Tieck (“On the Artist... 73 The sign means a pass in the original. – Ed. The last phrase ends the 13th typewritten page, there are no pages 14 and further, the text breaks off. You might be interested in: