3. Ветхозаветное священство

The Old Testament ministries - priesthood, kingdom and prophecy - in external-historical and internal-essential relations have an inversely proportional significance for the Jewish religion. In terms of the richness of its forms, the Old Testament cult was more important than the kingdom and prophecy; The life of the Jewish people, one might say, was filled with cult and the ministry of priests penetrated into all aspects of their life. Likewise, the kingdom, in terms of the breadth of historical development, was more important than prophecy: the external history of the Jewish people is the history of its kings. Old Testament prophecy, as a ministry, did not have a specific form, it was a free manifestation of the spirit, and it had almost no external history; but essentially, from its inner side, the religion of the Jews is the religion of their prophets. Since we are concerned not with the external historical, but with the essential side of the Jewish religion, we focus less on the priestly and royal services and more on Old Testament prophecy. The Jewish cult, which appeared mainly in the person of priests and in the form of victims, does not represent a completely unique affiliation with the Jewish religion: priests and victims are characteristic of every religion, no matter how low the level of development it may be. Typically, a religious sacrifice is considered as an offering pleasing to God, as a means of appeasing divine wrath, and, finally, as a means of communication between man and the gods, since the sacrifice was a common meal for gods and people. We also find echoes of such general religious significance in the religion of the Jews 209, who had priests and a sacrificial cult even before the conclusion of the covenant with Jehovah 210. That the Jewish religion had a priesthood is very important for it: the priesthood testifies that it was a true religion, rooted in the spontaneous historical distance. But we do not dwell either on the forms and history of the Old Testament cult, or on its general religious basis. It is more important for us to consider what connection of religious concepts connected the cult with the idea of ​​the divine-human covenant, and in what relationship the priesthood stood to the kingdom and prophecy. The connection between religious cult and priestly service and the idea of ​​the covenant is established at two points: in the concept of religious slavery and in the concept of sin. We have seen that the idea of ​​a covenant presupposes the mutual freedom of the parties. But how, on the part of the divine, freedom passes, beyond the limits of the covenant, into will, not constrained by legal norms; Likewise, on the human side, Old Testament freedom is allowed only in relation to the conclusion of a contract, but not in relation to the entire course of people’s life under the shadow of the covenant. Just as the freedom to elect a despot king ceases with the election of one or another king, so the old freedom of the covenant with God was limited by the completed covenant. So Joshua, inviting the Jews to freely choose which God to serve, Jehovah or other gods, warns them that it is difficult to serve Jehovah 211. Concluding a covenant with the Jews, Jehovah Himself told them: “you will be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” 212; but the priesthood of the Jewish people indicates the height of its position among other nations, and not the nature of its own internal relations to Jehovah. Having freely entered into a covenant with Jehovah and, by virtue of this, becoming a kingdom of priests among other nations, in their own relations to Jehovah, under the shadow of the covenant, the Jewish people are the servants of Jehovah 213, the righteous of the Old Testament are the servants of Jehovah 214. The main type of revelation of the divine will in the Old Testament religion was command, law; the main virtues are obedience and faith, or fidelity 215. It is also characteristic of the Jewish religion that in its language the practice of worship is called service to God - worship (עָבַד) 216. The slavery of the Jewish people to Jehovah and service to Him began with the exodus of the Jews from Egypt, in other words, with their removal from Egyptian slavery. “The children of Israel are My servants,” said Jehovah; they are My servants whom I brought out of the land of Egypt." 217 Jehovah bought them as his own. They completely belong to Him - their life and property. If all Jews are the property of Jehovah, then in order to have the right to live, they must be redeemed from Jehovah. “When you number the children of Israel when you number them; then let each one give a ransom ( כפִר ) for his soul to Jehovah when they are numbered, and there will be no destructive plague among them when they are numbered.” The ransom is half the holy shekel; from the rich no more and from the poor no less than half a shekel. This ransom silver was used to serve the tabernacle of meeting 218 . Similarly to this ransom, one must understand the religious significance of circumcision among the Jews. In the matter of circumcision, a distinction must be made between historical origin and religious significance. The Jewish people received circumcision from their fathers; Moreover, it also existed among some other peoples. But since Jehovah at Horeb established a covenant with the living Jewish people, and not with their fathers, 219 the meaning of circumcision in the religion of the Jewish people cannot be exhausted by the historical perspective of its origin, its commandment to Abraham as the father of the Jewish people, but in this historical origin we have the right to look for indications of later religious significance - we must understand this meaning in the light of the idea of ​​​​the relationship of the Jewish people to Jehovah. In the very narrative about the establishment of circumcision under Abraham it is said: “An uncircumcised male, that soul shall be cut off from his people: he has violated my covenant” 220 . Later it is testified that the Jews were not circumcised during their forty-year wandering in the desert, and the name Gilgal, where Joshua circumcised the Jewish people, makes it clear that the Jews and Egypt suffered “the shame of Egypt,” i.e. that they, as uncircumcised, were ridiculed by the circumcised Egyptians 221. Therefore, in any case, in its religious significance, circumcision was in connection with the idea of ​​​​transitioning them from the slavery of Egypt to the slavery of Jehovah: it served as a ransom for the soul of a Jew, it was a sacrifice to God of productive, giving birth. The whole life of a Jew and all his property belongs to Jehovah. Especially, all the best belongs to Jehovah as property 222. These are, first of all, the firstborn of everything that gives birth and produces, and the firstborn of men, in order to avoid human sacrifices, so disgusting for Jehovah 223, and the firstborn of unclean cattle are redeemed. “Release to Jehovah everything that reveals lies; and all the firstborn of the livestock that you have, male, to Jehovah. And replace every donkey that opens (the womb) with a lamb; and if you do not replace it, then break his neck (Greek: λυτρώς ῃ αὐτό ransom him); and you shall ransom every firstborn of man from your sons." 224 This is a sacrifice to Jehovah 225 in memory of the death of all the firstborn of Egypt when the Jews left Egyptian slavery. “All the firstborn are Mine; on the day that I struck down all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, I sanctified to myself all the firstborn of Israel, from man to beast; Mine must be; I am Jehovah" 226. The Passover sacrifice - the blood of a lamb - was the first ransom for the Jewish firstborn 227. Together with the firstborns of men and animals, the firstborns of plants were sacrificed to Jehovah - the firstfruits of the fruits of the earth and the first sheaf of the harvest. In addition to the firstborn of livestock and the firstfruits, Jehovah also owned the tithe of livestock and fruits 228. For the same reasons, the firstfruits of time are sacrificed to Jehovah - holidays 229, headed by the Passover, which took place “in the first month - the beginning of months” 230, and the Sabbath. Both Passover and Saturday served as a reminder to the Jews of their liberation from Egyptian slavery 231 . Adjacent to these holidays were the rest - new moons (the beginning of each month), holidays of sacred assemblies (three: in addition to Easter - Pentecost and the Feast of Tabernacles), Sabbath years (Saturday of years) and Jubilee (Saturday of Sabbaths). Among the “best things” that belong to Jehovah, blood should be specially named. According to the Jewish view, blood is the seat of the animal soul - “the soul of every body is its blood” 232. As the seat of life, the blood belongs to Jehovah. From here, first of all, follows the prohibition of shedding human blood and eating the blood of animals, or eating carrion. You can eat animals, but their blood belongs to Jehovah. In its original severity, this meant that slaughtering domestic animals, i.e. shedding their blood was possible only in “the place that Jehovah will choose for His name to dwell there”; although later it was allowed, depending on the distance from the altar, to slaughter animals at home, shedding blood on the ground like water, and only offering the blood of sacrificial animals to Jehovah 233 . This is the extent of Old Testament slavery. The consciousness of slavery was strengthened by the consciousness of sin. Although sin is a violation of the covenant and the law in which the covenant is clothed, we must note the very early origin of sin and its consciousness in the religious experience of the Jewish people, so that even the primary laws of the priesthood and sacrifice presuppose the sinfulness of the people. Apparently, the operation of the covenant and the operation of the law should significantly precede the appearance of sin; but in reality, the sin of the Jewish people arose simultaneously with the “law of the covenant” of Jehovah with the people and even preceded the covenant: this was possible, of course, because Jehovah’s covenant with the people was, in the religious view of the Jews, a renewal of the covenant with its fathers. Here it is necessary to mention not only that the Jews “were disobedient to Jehovah from the very day” that Moses proclaimed the name of Jehovah 234 to them, repeatedly grieved Him during the journey to the mountain of legislation and “committed a great sin” before Him by worshiping the calf at the very time of the legislation 235 , but also that the Jews in Egypt served other “gods” 236 : before were called as a people and received the law, they had already sinned against Jehovah, the God of their fathers. Be that as it may, the law of the covenant presupposes the sin of the people. The religious slavery of the Jewish people and their sin ground the priestly ministry in Israelite society and the atoning sacrifice. Apparently, among the Jews, who, as a society, are considered by Jehovah to be a kingdom of priests and a holy people 237, there should not be any special priests. But the ministry of priests among Jews is, first of all, caused by the conditions of religious slavery of the people: they serve as a substitute for Israel's firstborn 238. Secondly, priestly service is determined by the sinfulness of the people, which prevents them from “seeing Jehovah” and approaching the sanctuary under pain of death and requiring the mediation of persons who are especially sanctified and sanctify the entire people 239 . Thus, the Levites and priests “offered services for the children of Israel at the tabernacle of meeting, and served as a guard (cover לִכַפִּר) for the children of Israel, so that the children of Israel would not be defeated when the children of Israel approached the sanctuary” 240. Since the Levites and priests are the representatives of the people, their leaders before Jehovah, it is noteworthy in the rite of their consecration that the people laid their hands on the Levites, and the great priest “carried the names of the children of Israel on his shoulders and heart.” It should be mentioned that within the clergy itself there was a distinction between the priests, led by the high priest, and the Levites. But this difference, more nuanced in the book. The outcome is smoothed out in the book. Deuteronomy, where we speak generally about the Levitical priests 242; in any case, the Levites and priests did not differ in the sense that both represented the people and were their leaders before Jehovah 243 . The difference between the Levites and the priests was not in the direction from man to God, but in the direction from God to man: the priests were not only the representatives of the people before Jehovah, but also the representatives of Jehovah before the people 244 . In the person of the priests, the fruit of the people’s dedication to Jehovah of the Levites was already manifested, Jehovah’s response to the people for the donation of the Levites to Him and for priestly service. This response of Jehovah to the people to his priestly sacrifice was that He revealed His will through the Urim and Thummim of the high priest 245, so that the priests were teachers of the people 246. However, it is very important that the significance of the Urim and Thummim decreases over time, 247 and in the days of the (canonical) prophets, the teachers of the people were not priests, but prophets who denounced the people with their priests. Therefore, the most characteristic of the Old Testament priesthood is its position, which was created by the conditions of religious slavery and “sinfulness” of the Jewish people. The same conditions created the Old Testament sacrificial cult in its three main moments - at the moment of burnt offering, which primarily appeared in the sacrifice of this name, at the moment of communication in the sacrificial meal, which characterized the peace offering, and at the moment of cleansing, or atonement for sins - in the sacrifice for sin. The first two points are sufficiently justified by religious slavery. Everything in Israel belongs to Jehovah: they redeem the right to life and use of property with sacrifices - the sacrifice of firstborns, firstfruits, tithes. This naturally includes “voluntary gifts,” or actual sacrifices. “To the place that Jehovah chooses, there you shall offer your burnt offerings and your sacrifices... and eat there before Jehovah your God, and rejoice, you and your families, in everything that is done with your hands, with which Jehovah your God has blessed you.” 248 This is the scheme of burnt offerings and peace offerings: bringing a burnt offering to Jehovah provides the children of Israel with “peaceful” joy. The sins of Israel call forth a cleansing, or atonement, sacrifice for sin. This sacrifice stands alongside the burnt offering, and the peace offering follows not only the burnt offering, but also the sin offering: participation in the peace offering is conditioned not only by religious slavery, which requires a burnt offering, but also by sin, which requires an atoning sacrifice. As in a burnt offering, the main matter is the all-consuming fire emanating from Jehovah 250; so the main matter of the atoning sacrifice is the blood of animals, shed by man and accepted by God as covering for sins, atonement for them. Jehovah said: “The life of the body is in the blood, and I have appointed it for you on the altar לִכַפּר to atone for (atone or cover) your souls, for the blood makes atonement for the soul (which is in it)” 251 . The very idea of ​​sacrificial atonement 252 is in complete harmony with the general structure of the Old Testament cult: how, under the condition of religious slavery, the Jews redeemed their souls with silver 253 and replaced their firstborn with Levites; just as the Levites and priests replaced the Jews in front of the tabernacle and covered them so that they would not die from their sins, 254 so from the guilt of sin they redeemed their souls with the blood of sacrificial animals. And again, just as the sons of Israel laid their hands on the Levites, at their dedication, so the sinners laid their hands on the sacrifice 255. Now the question is: what sins were atoned for by sacrificial blood? Only less important sins and guilts are sins committed by mistake, involuntarily 256; while the sin of conscious resistance to the will of God, the sin of a “bold hand,” was punished by the death of the sinner 257. The religious and social life of Jews was dominated by jus talionis, equal retribution: a jackpot for the soul, etc. 258. More serious sins - idolatry, murder, disrespect for parents - were punished by death, which “removed evil from the midst of Israel”; for less serious and conscientious sins, a ransom was allowed. So it is with sins actually against God: sin “with a bold hand” was punished by the death of the Jew and the slavery of the people, but the sins and guilt of the Jew and the people “by mistake” were atoned for by the blood of the sacrificial animal 259. – The first sacrifice of the Jewish people was the sacrifice that accompanied the conclusion of their covenant with Jehovah; each purifying sacrifice maintained and renewed the religious union. Lion. 1, 3. 9; III, II. 16 and many more etc. Number XXV, 3.5; I Sam. III, 14; XXVI, 19. Life XXVI, 24; Number XII, 7; XIV, 24; I. Nav. I, 1 syll. Number XII, 7; Deut. VI, 25. Lion. XXV, 55; also 42 Wed. XXVI, 13. Iis. Nav. V, 5 – 9. In the question of circumcision we encounter the same duality as in the question of the Sabbath. Life II, 3; Ref. XX 11; XXVI, 17. Ref. XIII, 12. 13; XXXIV, 20. Ref. XXIII, 19; XXXIV, 26; Lion. XXIII, 10; XXVII, 30 – 33; Deut. XXV, 2 words. General laws on holidays Ref. XXIII; Lion. XXIII; XXV; Number XXVIII; XXXIX; Deut. XVI. Ref. XII, 2; Lion. XXIII; 5. But sn. 2 Kings XXIII, 21 – 23. Ref. XIII, 9; Leo XXIII, 2 f. About Saturday Wed. higher. Lion. XVII, 11. 14; Deut. XII, 23. Hence, further, the organ of rational human life is the heart. In the Old Testament language, which is also retained in the New Testament, the heart is the organ of spiritual life (Prov. IV, 23: “Keep your heart above all else, for from it are the sources of life”), in particular the organ of self-awareness, conscience, feelings, and knowledge. The Jew spoke about the heart as we now speak about the soul. Eg. Life XX, 5; Deut. VIII, 5; Job. XXVII, 6, etc. Ref. XXXII, Wed. Oc. IX, 10 (Num. XXV) 1. Nav. XXIV, 15; Ezek. XXIII, 3 words. Ref. XIX, 6 Wed. Number XVI, 3. Number III, 12 ff. VIII, 16 ff. Ref. XIX, 21; Number XVIII, 22 Wed. XVII. Number VIII, 19 Wed. I, 53. About the priests Num. XVII, XVIII, 1 ff., about the high priests Ex. XXVIII, 38. Number VIII, 10; Ref. XXVIII. Deut. XVII, 9. 18 cp. XXI, 5; XXXIII, 8 – 10. Deut. XVII, 12; XVIII, 7. Cp. I. with Sir. XLV, 20. 21 Ref. XXVIII, 30; Number XXVII, 21. Leah. X, 12; Deut. XXXIII, 10 Wed. Small II, 7. The functions of the Urim and Thummim are not mentioned after David. Deut. XII, 5 ff. XXVI, 1 ff. Lion. XXIII, 14. Cp. I Joshua V. 10 11. Lev VII, 37; IX, 15 – 18; Number VI, 16. 17, etc. The burnt offering also cleanses sins Lev I, 4 cf. XIV, 20; XVI, 24; Ezek. XLV, 15. Atonement sacrifices do not occur before Moses. Lion. IX, 23. 24. Corresponding to the fire of the burnt offering was salt in the grain offerings. Lev L, 13. For the meaning of כפר cf. Life Χ X Χ II, 21 (Russian translation 20); 1 Kings XII. 3. Purification is indifferently attributed to God Deut. XXI. 8, to the priest Lev. V. 16; XV, 15.30 and sacrifice Lev. X, 17. On the day of atonement (of the people), the blood of the sin offering and burnt offering (cf. Lev. I, 4) was brought “into the sanctuary behind the veil” and it was sprinkled on the mercy seat (כַפֹּרִת) of the ark of the covenant. Lion. I, 4; III, 2; IV, 4, etc. (Not with one sacrifice actually for sin). Wed. Job I, 5, – Lev. XVI “all sins” must also be understood in the sense of (all) sins committed “simply and unintentionally” cf. Ezek. XLV, 18 - 20. The same view of the cleansing of unintentional sins and even natural uncleanness by the sacrifice is expressed in the sin offerings of a woman who gave birth (Lev. XII), a leper (XIV, 18 - 20), having an issue and bleeding (XV, 15. 30), etc. (Lev. XIV, 52 ff.). In general, this view of the purification of less important sins by sacrifice is very characteristic of the Jewish religion. In it one can see a reflection of prophetic preaching, which placed moral purity in the first place and awakened the people's conscience from being lulled to sleep by external means of reconciliation with God. But it should also be borne in mind that this view of the limited significance of the purifying sacrifice coexisted very conveniently in certain eras with the religious conceit of the Jewish people, since it was assumed that the living Jew and the living Jewish people are free from sins for which death is required, and can only be guilty of unimportant sins from which they are ritually cleansed. See below. You might be interested in: