Pythagoras as represented by Porphyry

" Περί τοῦ βίου Πυθαγόρου λόγος " Porphyria presents a fairly significant amount of data to characterize Pythagoras in various respects. In the first section of this work (1–17 numeri of the Ar. Holstenium) we are talking mainly about the education of Pythagoras, in the second (num. 18–52) - about the political activities, miracles, private life and teaching of Pythagoras, the third describes the last period of Pythagoras’ life and the fate of Pythagoreanism after the death of its founder. Porfiry treats the sources of his work so objectively that his work contains information that is varied to the point of contradiction, and most often 1 Porfiry does not go into criticism of their comparative reliability. Therefore, the pragmatic connection between the facts is indicated only in very few cases. Sometimes Porfiry’s own view of the news he gives can only be spoken of speculatively. Believing that Porfiry recognizes as reliable all those news that do not mutually exclude each other, and from the news that directly contradict each other, he accepts those that are confirmed either by the majority of quoted writers, or are found in a work that Porfiry himself recognizes as especially accurate, we can imagine the following outline of the life of Pythagoras according to Porfiry: Pythagoras was born in Samos 2 between 610–562. BC 3 According to his mother, he belonged to one of the most ancient aristocratic families in Samos. The father of Pythagoras (imaginary, as some assured, together with one Samian poet, who considered Pythagoras the son of Apollo) Mnesarchus 4 was a very rich and “experienced” man (πολλὰς μὲν πόλεις, πολλὰ δὲ κωρία ἐπιών) and took care of raising his children. Having noticed in Pythagoras since childhood his talent and ability to learn (εἰς π ᾶ σαν μάθησιν), Mnesarchus sent him to Tire to study with the Chaldeans. Returning from there, Pythagoras listened to Pherecydes, a cosmogonist philosopher, not free from the influences of the East, namely from the “Phoenician books” (Henne in Dict. Sciences philosoph., 1851), then Hermodamantus and Anaximander, who taught, among other things, geometry and astronomy (num. 11). After this, Pythagoras, to complete his education, undertook a journey to Egypt and to various peoples of Western Asia. 5 Pythagoras owes most of his wisdom to this journey. Pythagoras undertook this journey with the purpose of 1) to study the natural and mathematical sciences in their original source - from those peoples who laid the foundation for various branches of these sciences and specially developed them - and 2) to become familiar with religious and moral teachings and institutions, as well as the secret knowledge of peoples who became famous in this regard. He studied geometry - from the Egyptians, astronomy - from the Chaldeans, pure mathematics (τὰ περὶ ἀριθμύς τε καὶ λογισμούς) - from the Phoenicians, listened to Zabrat, along with the doctrine of principles of all things (τῶν ὅ λων ἀρχαί), and the doctrine (λόγον) of nature. Among the Jews, Pythagoras, the first of the Greeks, learned the art of dream interpretation and fortune telling through incense; the magicians and Chaldeans presented their teachings to Pythagoras, and Zabrat not only taught him what a person should strictly abstain from (ἁ γνεύειν), but also cleansed him from the defilements of his former life (τά τοῦ προτέρου βίου λύματα ). In Egypt, Pythagoras encountered many obstacles, and the victory over them puts all the “amazing patience” (καρτερίαν) of the inquisitive Greek in a bright light. Here he had to study the Egyptian language and three types of writing - symbolic, hieroglyphic and demotic (ἐπιστολογραφικόν). Thanks to Polycrates' letter of recommendation, Pythagoras received from Pharaoh Amasis II an order for the priests to allow Pythagoras into their secrets. When he presented this decree to the priests of Heliopolis, they, in order to get rid of the obsessive Greek, sent him to Memphis under the pretext that their leaders lived there (πρεσβύτεροι); The Memphis priests, under the same pretext, sent Pythagoras to the priests of Diospolis. These latter probably had nowhere to send Pythagoras further; it was scary to refuse to fulfill the Pharaoh’s decree, and it was also undesirable to carry it out. Therefore, they decided to frighten Pythagoras with the severity of the test and prescribed for him exactly what was contrary to Greek customs. But Pythagoras submitted to the temptation with such patience that the priests were surprised and allowed Pythagoras - the first of the foreigners - to their sacred rites and the treasures of their wisdom. Returning from his journey through various nations, Pythagoras opened a school in Samos. There was much that was non-Greek in the philosopher’s behavior and views; unusual. He often retired to a country cave and spent days and nights there talking with friends. When he saw his childhood friend Astraeus, he peered long and carefully into the features of his face, studied him both in a state of rest and in motion, and only then allowed him to be one of his listeners. All other friends and acquaintances of Pythagoras were subjected to the same procedure. His aversion to any kind of killing was so great that he did not even go near cooks and hunters. Having become close to the Samian athlete and Olympic winner Eurymenes, Pythagoras began to tell him that winning the Olympic Games does not mean achieving moral perfection ( that you need to work ( ὑπομένειν τούς πόνους), but avoiding envy is the consequence of victory, and therefore advised Eurymenes to strive in the field of an athlete, but not to win - a thought that is in complete contradiction with the range of concepts of the ancient Greek. Recognizing that it was incongruous with his dignity as a philosopher and a free man to endure the too despotic rule of Polycrates, Pythagoras decided to leave Samos and, probably under the influence of childhood memories of beautiful Italy, where he had once been with Mnesarchus, chose great Greece as his new fatherland 6 . On his way to Italy, he visited the sanctuaries of Apollo in Delphi and Zeus in Crete and was initiated into the mysteries of the Dactyls. In Croton, Pythagoras had a brilliant success. Pythagoras was only 40 years old, and he already enjoyed the fame of a great traveler (ἀνδρὸς πολυπλάνου τε καὶ περιτ τοῦ); he was called the favorite of happiness because, along with high spiritual gifts, he also had a beautiful appearance: his stature was tall, his facial features were noble, his voice was harmonious, his gestures and external behavior (ἦ θος) were graceful. In a word, both his reputation and his appearance already had the Greeks in his favor. Indeed, his first, long and beautiful speech to the young Crotonians (τοῖς νέοις) immediately gained him the favor of the Geronts themselves, and then, at their request, Pythagoras addressed instructions to the young men (ἡβητικὰς πα ραινέσεις), and then to children (τοῖς παιςὶν). His speech to women was equally successful. The strength of the impression he made can be judged by the fact that with one speech (μι ᾶ μόνον ἀκροάσει) he attracted more than 2,000 followers. The fame of Pythagoras grew and grew, his name became known not only in other Greek republics, but also outside the then civilized world: Lucans, Messanians, Picenians, Romans, even “kings and rulers from a neighboring barbarian country” came to listen to Pythagoras. He acted as a preacher of moderation in everything, dietary, modest lifestyle, education, unanimity in the family and the city. This last shade of Pythagoras' teaching was closely related to the sad state of public affairs in Italy at that time. Discord occurred between cities and fellow citizens; many cities lost their political independence and were in slavish dependence on other cities. Pythagoras, who was keenly aware of his dignity as a free person, who even left his homeland because there was no freedom in it, naturally did not put up with this state of affairs in Italy. What were the political views of Pythagoras, this can be seen from the fact that Simichus of Centuripin, under the influence of the words of Pythagoras, renounced tyranny and divided his property between his sister and the citizens. As Italy and Sicily became covered with a network of closed, strictly organized circles or communes (ὁμακοία) of the Pythagoreans, the agitation assumed ever wider dimensions; The Pythagoreans inspired their fellow citizens with the idea of ​​freedom, and thus Pythagoras liberated Croton, Sybaris, Catana, Regium, Himera, Agrigentum, Tauromena and some other republics. Along with freedom, they received from Pythagoras laws drawn up in his spirit by Charondus and Zaleukos - laws so perfect that neighboring countries began to imitate them. This public activity of the Pythagoreans earned them such respect in Italy that some cities placed them at the head of government. Pythagoras himself, however, did not accept public positions. Such a high political position of the Pythagoreans was not strong enough. There was a sore point in the reform they carried out: it was too bold; Pythagoras did not want to “follow the beaten path,” that is, follow the opinion of the common people; and therefore the laws given by Pythagoras were alien to the people. And the high social position of the Pythagoreans began to arouse envy of them. The signal for a general uprising against them was the attack on them by the rich and influential Crotonian aristocrat Quilon. This morally rude man could not forgive Pythagoras for the wound to the aristocrat’s pride that Pythagoras inflicted on him by denying him the right to enter Pythagoras’ society. Cylon accused Pythagoras in front of his many clients of some kind of intent against them, and when Pythagoras, along with 40 of his students, met in one house, Cylon attacked them and set the house on fire from all sides. The Pythagoreans, they say, threw themselves into the flames and, making a living bridge from their bodies, gave their teacher the opportunity to escape. Of these, only two were saved; the rest of the Pythagoreans who were not at this meeting were beaten. - Pythagoras for the first time retired to the Caulonian port and from there headed to Locri. But the Locrian deputies from Gerusia met Pythagoras on the border of their republic with such a characteristic speech: “We, Pythagoras, heard that you are a wise and intelligent man (δεινός), but in our own laws we do not find anything bad (ἐπί τοῖς ἰδίοις νόμοις οὐθὲν ἔχομεν ἐγκαλεῖν ), and we will try to preserve them, and you take from us what you need and go somewhere else.” Pythagoras went to Tarentum, then to Metapontum; but everywhere there was persecution against the Pythagoreans, which left a long-lasting memory among the people. During the rebellion in Metapontum, Pythagoras himself died of hunger in the Church of the Muses. According to another piece of news, having lost his friends, the philosopher himself exhausted himself (ἑαυτὸν τοῦ βίου ἐξαγαγεῖν φαςὶν) due to sadness about them. But the good fruits of Pythagoras’s political influence survived him: thanks to him, for many generations (ἄχρι πολλῶν γενεῶν, num. 22) in all the republics of Italy and (Sicily) there were no discords, internal and external disagreements. The high qualities of Pythagoras could not be fully expressed in his public activities, for which he himself had no special sympathy, but were manifested in his private life among his students. Pythagoras strictly adhered to the ideal of life that he recommended to everyone (n. 22). A strictly dietary, moderate lifestyle surely led to the fact that Pythagoras’s physical health was in a flourishing state. Innocent pleasures, such as music, a walk in quiet beautiful groves, or visiting churches accompanied by two or three friends, had an equally beneficial effect on his soul and body. To maintain mobility, Pythagoras resorted to some kind of dancing. The philosopher's table was the most modest: honey or honeycomb - at breakfast (ἄριστον), millet bread or porridge (μᾶ ξα) and raw or boiled vegetables - at dinner. Pythagoras avoided eating meat even when he needed especially nutritious food that satisfied hunger for a long time, and only occasionally made an exception to his rule for some parts of sacrificial meat. - Thanks to such a diet, Pythagoras never lost weight or became fat. Pythagoras’s spiritual mood was just as even and harmonious: he stood above any excessive joy or sadness; he was never seen laughing or crying. And, however, he was not at all a callous, heartless person. He loved his friends deeply (ὑπερηγάπα), as one would expect from the one who first expressed the principle: “friends have everything in common.” He willingly spent time talking with them, healed their illnesses, calmed their passionate emotions, and made them forget about mental suffering with his magical singing. His meek soul shines through even in his relations with animals: he caresses for a long time (ἐπαφησάμενος χρόνον συχνὸν) the old bear, strokes the eagle that descended on his hand, and lets go. The Crotonians turned the house of Pythagoras into the church of Ceres; the Pythagoreans considered him almost a god (κατηρίθμουν μετὰ των θεῶν (not ἐν τ. θ. or πρὸς τ. θ.). This can be considered a true sign that moral qualities Pythagoras were really high, according to the judgment of his contemporaries. But perhaps it was not Pythagoras’ moral qualities alone that served as the basis for such a high opinion of his contemporaries. He demonstrated his superhuman power and knowledge in many “wonderful and divine” actions 7 . Not only people, but also animals and even the elements themselves were subject to the influence of Pythagoras. His caresses and spells turned the terrible bear into a gentle animal, harmless to both people and animals. The bull, after listening to Pythagoras's instructions, never ate beans again. At the word of Pythagoras, the waves of the seas and rivers along which his friends sailed subsided. The Caucasus River greeted him loudly, for all to hear, with the words: “χαῖρε Πυθα γόρα!” With his magical songs he healed his friends from illnesses; at his word, pestilence, hail and storms quickly ceased. On the arrow of Hyperborean Apollo, Pythagoras was carried through the air through all earthly barriers and thus on the same day could talk with his friends in Tauromenia (in Sicily) and in Metaponte (in Italy). The superhuman knowledge of Pythagoras was already attested by Empedocles. Pythagoras had such “wealth of mind that he comprehended all the researches of the wise; with the full exertion of all his spiritual powers, he saw through and through everything that exists, everything that happens over the course of 10–20 human generations.” In fact, Pythagoras correctly predicted earthquakes, determined exactly the number of fish in the net that had not yet been pulled out, and said that he was carrying a ship entering the harbor; knew exactly all the forms of his existence, starting from the time of the Trojan War - from Euphorbus to Pythagoras, - he even knew about other people, who they were before their incarnation in a real personality, and reminded some of them of their life in previous forms. Pythagoras' external senses were so perfectly organized that he could hear the wondrous sounds emitted by the celestial spheres. In a word,” notes Porfiry, “no one else is told about more important, amazing and divine things... However, Pythagoras also gave material proof of his divine nature. The priest of Hyperborean Apollo Abaris came to the idea that Pythagoras is precisely the Apollo whom he, Abaris, serves, and the philosopher not only did not dissuade Abaris from this, on the contrary, as proof of the correctness of his view, he showed him his golden thigh. “Everyone knows this,” notes Porfiry, “and is recognized by everyone as the truth.” Porphyry admits that it is absolutely impossible to present precisely and thoroughly the teachings of Pythagoras οὐδέ ε ἷ ς ἔχει φράσαι βεβαίως ). The reason for this is the strictly esoteric nature of Pythagoras’ teaching, on the one hand, and its dark, mysterious (αἰνιγματῶδες) presentation, on the other. The philosophy of Pythagoras in its pure and complete form could not spread outside the Pythagorean community due to the “strict silence” of the Pythagoreans, and therefore the terrible blow dealt to the Pythagoreans by the uprising of the people against them was no less a heavy blow for the philosophy of Pythagoras itself. Lysias and Archippus, who escaped death, and some other Pythagoreans, apparently, did not particularly clearly understand the dark teaching of Pythagoras, because the teaching they set forth in their “memoirs” (ὑπομνήματα) represents only “a few dark and almost elusive sparks of philosophy” (ὀλίγα... ζώπυρα τῆς φιλοσοφίας, ἀμυδρά τε καὶ δυσθήρατα num. And yet, this is the most important written monument of Pythagorean philosophy, since Pythagoras himself did not write anything. According to Pythagoras, philosophy is a means for achieving true knowledge of things, and for that very reason it is a means for achieving happiness. Man is gifted with a mind that, by its very nature, is capable of seeing and hearing everything, of comprehending the “true and sound,” eternal, incorporeal, unchangeable in quality and image of its existence (τὰ ἐχόντα ὡ σαύτως καὶ κατὰ ταὐτά). But the body in which the mind is confined is blind and deaf, and therefore the mind is forced through the bodily organs to cognize only the bodily, which has no stability either in quality or in quantity ( μηδ᾿ ἐφ᾿ ὅ σον ο ὖ ν διαμένοντα ). The purpose of philosophy is to free the mind from bonds and obstacles of this kind. The difficulty of achieving this goal lies mainly in the fact that the mind, which has been eating unhealthy, bad food for a long time, has become accustomed to it, so that if you suddenly offer it healthy food, that is, contemplation of the eternal and incorporeal, then it will only be frightened by this sudden change and refuse healthy food. Therefore, philosophy must artificially arouse in the mind the appetite (ἔφεσιν) for healthy food and raise the mind from the contemplation of the corporeal to the contemplation of the incorporeal gradually and imperceptibly. To do this, she must first offer the mind the contemplation of such objects that occupy the middle between the close and the incorporeal. It is precisely these subjects that mathematics deals with, 8 so, for example, geometric bodies have three dimensions, like physical bodies, but they also have a very important difference from the latter: geometric bodies do not have corporeality, materiality, which declares itself in opposition to our movement - they do not have ἀντιτυπίαν. The very first philosophy also has some connection with the mathematical sciences” (ἡ πρωτίστη φιλοσοφία) of Pythagoras. It represents a treatise (πραγματεία) on numbers, or the clarification through numbers of the fundamental principles of existence. There is essentially nothing original in this technique; this is a simple imitation of techniques that have long been practiced by grammarians and geometers. Every grammarian begins by showing the student a letter and calling it a known sound, and only subsequently explains to the student that the letter itself is not an element of speech and has only a casual relationship with the sound (δύναμις) for which it was chosen to designate. The geometer visually depicts a triangle with the letter Δ; by this he wants to say not that this sign, subject to external perception (τὸ ὑπὸ τὴν ὄψιν ὑποπῖπτον), is the triangle itself (as a generic concept), but only that this letter has similarities with a triangle (τὸ τοιοῦτο), and therefore can remind of him. In the same way, the Pythagoreans, finding it difficult to express clearly in words “the first incorporeal species (εἴδη) and the first principles (ἀρχαὶ),” believed that they could most clearly and best be expressed in numbers (παρεγένοντο ἐπί τούς ἀριθμούς εὐσήμου χάριν διδασκαλίας ). Not entirely original from a formal point of view, the teaching of Pythagoras is not entirely new in its content; at least in his teaching about the first two numbers, Pythagoras repeats the teaching found in other philosophers about the comprehensive principles of equality and dissimilarity or difference (ἑτερότητος). The Pythagoreans recognized the existence of two opposing forces (ἀντικειμένων δυνάμεις): the principle and internal basis (λόγος) of unity, equality, identity, - according to the teachings of the Pythagoreans, - the principle of difference ( ἑτερότητος ), inequalities. The first principle is the cause (τὸ αἴτι ον) of internal connection, interaction and preservation of the whole (τῆς συμπνοιας καὶ τῆς συμπαθείας τῶν ὀλων), the cause of everything stable in quality and mode of existence - the second principle is the cause of everything divisible (τοῦ μεριστοῦ) and changeable (τὸ ἐν μεταβολῆ καὶ ἄλλοτε ἄλλως ἔχοντος ). The Pythagoreans called the first principle one (ἓ ν) and one (μονὰς), the second - two-form, unequal, different or - which is the same thing - two (δυὰς). The Pythagoreans associated many others with this initial opposition and designated them with the same terms. Here are the types of this opposition mentioned by Porfiry: Best (βελτίως) power – Worst power (χείρον) Identical – Different Indivisible whole – Divided into parts – ( Σωτηρία τῶν ὅ λων ) – ( Π ᾶ ν τὸ μεριστόν ) Unchangeable – Changing Abiding (μένον) – Carrying (φερόμενον) Straight (εὐθύ) – Crooked (περιφερές) In the same spirit, the Pythagoreans interpreted other numbers. For example, in the number 3 they saw the expression of the idea of everything complete, perfect (τέλειον), everything that has a beginning, middle and end, and they called the number 3 itself perfect. They placed the number 10, the decade, even higher; in the very name of this “most perfect” number “δεκάς” they saw a modified “διχὰς” and associated with it the idea of “idea and power” that embraces everything else, just as “the number 10 embraces every count (λόγον), aspect and ratio ( ἀναλογίαν) numbers." 9 In general, the basis of the entire treatise on numbers seems to be the view of the world and natural phenomena as something strictly correct. "The nature of everything is determined (περατούται) by counting numbers and proportions (κατ᾿ ἀριθμῶν λόγους τε καὶ ἀναλογίας), and everything that happens, increases and ends (τελειούμενον) occurs by counting numbers.” Outside of connection with this “primary philosophy” are other “well-known” points of Pythagoras’ teaching. They were not the product of his independent philosophical thought, and all his merit in this case is limited to the fact that he was the first to bring them to Greece. These are the philosophical theses listed by Porfiry: 2. It passes into other (ἄλλα) genera of animals. This thesis seems to have taken first place in Pythagoras’s argumentation. Pythagoras first proved with irrefutable, visual 10 arguments (τεκμηρίοις) the immutability of the fact of transmigration of souls (the fact that he, Pythagoras, during the Trojan War was incarnated in the person of Euphorbus and then successively existed in the persons of Aethalides, Hermotimus and Pyrrhus and, finally, for the fifth time incarnated in the person Pythagoras) and from this empirically proven fact he concluded (δι᾿ ὧ ν ἐδείκνυεν) that the soul is immortal. 3. There is nothing absolutely new, because after a certain period everything that happens (τὰ γινόμενα) returns to existence again. 4. All animate beings (τά γινόμενα) should be considered homogeneous. Pythagoras presented the origin of the organic world in this form: The first beginning and being (γένεσις) became muddied, and the seeds of many (substances) fell en masse into the ground and together underwent decomposition. Both animals and plants began to emerge from the decomposed mass; at the same time, the beans grew from the same rot from which people originated. Nothing is definitely known about the physics of Pythagoras 11 . Porphyry speaks in more detail about the moral teachings of Pythagoras. The object of a person’s aspirations should and can be 1) what is beautiful and honorable, 2) useful for life, and 3) pleasant or pleasure. But not all pleasure is permissible. There are grossly sensual pleasures (ἡ γαστρὶ καὶ ἀφροδισίοις ἡδονή), deceiving and stupefying a person (γοητευτικήν), bought by him at too high a price. These are the songs of sirens that kill people. But there are pleasures of a different kind, consisting in the enjoyment of the beautiful, just and necessary for life, the most respectable, innocent and, moreover, lasting pleasures (ἡδονὴ βέβαιος): pleasant in the present, they do not entail repentance in the future. These pleasures are the harmony of the muses. They alone are permissible for a person. Out of connection, at least visible, with this general teaching about what is proper or permissible are the various fragmentary moral precepts of Pythagoras. Porphyry himself does not bring them into any system, does not try to derive them from any one principle, but it seems that quite a significant part of them can be subsumed under the principle so energetically expressed by Pythagoras: “moderation in everything.” The attitude towards this principle of such rules as: “don’t be selfish (“don’t jump over the scales” πλεονεκτεῖν)”, “don’t indulge in (excessive) sadness (don’t eat your heart)”, “don’t live too luxuriously (φυγαδευτέον ἀπό κοιλίας πολυτέλειαν)", - it’s clear. The same principle can be used to explain the rule: “live in such a way as not to arouse envy in anyone, and do not envy yourself” 13 with the requirements arising from it: “avoid ambition and love of fame, which are most capable of arousing envy; For the same purpose, give up even victory.” In the name of the same principle, it seems, Pythagoras limits the oppositional attitude to established concepts. Prohibiting “to walk along the beaten path,” that is, the opinions of the common people (τῶν πολ λῶν), ordering to adhere to the opinions of the educated minority (42), he, however, leaves existing laws completely intact and strictly arms himself against discord (στάσιν) in the state (n. 22) and prevents the possibility of a hostile clash with society, avoiding relations with him (τὰς μετ ᾶ τῶν πολλῶν ομιλίας) (n. 32). As for other moral rules, it seems impossible to derive them from the principle: “avoid immoderation in everything.” These are the rules: “Be hardworking” (do not live in idleness (42); must endure (ὑπομένειν) labor (15)). – Pythagoras understood work in a very broad sense, both as physical labor, as the work of an athlete, and as a feat of a purely moral nature. It is necessary to work for the benefit of other people, but at the same time pay attention to the fact that this assistance supports them in their labors and in virtue, and does not serve as a reason for laziness, or, in the picturesque language of Pythagoras, “you need to help the porters put on the load, and not add up.” him." – You need to take care of your education ( φυγαδευτέον ... ( ἀπό ) ψυχῆς ἀμαθίαν ). Consequently, mental work is obligatory for a person, and it has a very high significance: without philosophical education, the human mind cannot contemplate the true, truly existing, and in this contemplation lies the bliss of man (48). But if contemplation of the true (τὸ ἀληθές) is bliss for a person, then telling the truth (τὸ ἀληθεύειν) is his duty. Truthfulness is one of the main virtues: “only it can make a person godlike (παραπλησίου θεῶ), because the soul of the god Ormuzd is similar to truth.” 14 “It is necessary to faithfully keep not only the entrusted money, but also the entrusted secret ( πιστῶς τῶ παρακατα θεμένω φυλάσσειν ). 15 Precepts about love (ε ὔ νουν ε ἶ ναι) for parents and benefactors and about unanimity between family members (φυγαδευτέον... (ἀπ᾿) οἴκου διχοφροσύνην) do not represent anything particularly typical. Pythagoras’s injunction: “do not visit the churches of the gods in passing (μὴ ἐκ παρέργου), but leave the house with this intention” (38) deserves special attention as proof of the extent to which the analysis of moral actions was deep: Pythagoras is not content, when assessing the moral worth of a fact, with the fact itself, its external side, but watches its very origin in the human soul. As a means for moral improvement, Pythagoras recommended systematic control (φροντίδα) over oneself, self-examination before and after sleep. Finally, the last rule of Pythagoras was: “when you set out, do not return,” that is, die calmly, do not clutch at the life that is leaving you. Judging by the fact that Pythagoras zealously studied the religious beliefs of various peoples and was initiated into the secrets of the Egyptian and Greek dactylic cult, one could expect that he would offer some new religious teaching. However, Porfiry does not say anything clearly. There is one saying of Pythagoras, in which there seems to be a dull hint of some secret Pythagorean teaching about the gods. “Do not wear images of gods on rings,” says Pythagoras, that is, do not divulge opinions and teachings about the gods πρόχειρον μηδὲ φανερὸν ἔχειν , μηδ᾿ εἰς πολ λούς φέρειν ). But this saying allows for another interpretation: one should not wear images of gods on rings, perhaps newer ones, not because these images are new and have not come into general use, but only because they are holy; One should not profane religious subjects by making them the subject of ordinary conversation with everyone. In other sayings, Pythagoras is completely conservative in religious terms: he does not, apparently, rise to the idea of ​​​​monotheism; He commands his disciples to speak respectfully (ε ὔ φημον ε ἶ ναι) not only about the gods, but also about demons and heroes, to sacrifice odd things to the heavenly gods, and even things to the earthly gods, to visit churches, leaving their home with this intention. Pythagoras himself used to go to the sanctuaries of the gods for quite some time, and on his way to Italy he did not fail to visit the sacred places of Delphi and Crete, and in this latter place he reverently performed various religious rites. And yet it cannot be said that the dark sides of the Greek dogma were unknown to Pythagoras; he knew them well and seemed to deliberately increase their number, and, despite this, he remained a believing Greek. His faith was not shattered even by such things as the tombs (τάφοι) of Apollo and Zeus; Pythagoras recognized the fact of the death of both gods, writing on the tomb of the latter: “Here lies the deceased Zan, who is called Zeus,” and denying Apollo even the glory of victory over Python. Pythagoras was alien to religious intolerance and exclusive adherence to the Greek cult, and this tendency towards syncretism is perhaps the most important difference between Pythagoras’s religious views and the views of an ordinary pious Greek. In Babylon, Pythagoras had no doubt about receiving “cleansing from the defilements of his former life” from Zabrat, and in Egypt he even received the right to make sacrifices to the gods, and there is no reason to doubt that he took advantage of this right. He recognized Ormuzd as a god and based on the legends of the magicians that Ormuzd’s body is like light, and his soul is like truth, he substantiated the doctrine of the high importance of truthfulness as a virtue that makes a person godlike. Thus, the religious beliefs of Pythagoras were not fundamentally opposed to the Greek doctrine, and therefore there were no hostile clashes between Pythagoras and the zealots of the Greek cult. True, the teaching of Pythagoras that animals should not be killed was at odds with the usual religious rituals - Pythagoras considered blood sacrifices a hateful offering that offended the gods, 16 - but in this respect Pythagoras knew how to avoid a break with Greek rituals - partly by evading the consistent application of his teachings, 17 - so he, although occasionally, ate some parts of the sacrificial meat and sacrificed the most tender piglets and chickens, partly through a peculiar, so to speak, allegorical performance of religious rites; for example, on the occasion of the discovery of his famous theorem, he sacrificed a bull prepared from flour; and he advised the gods to bring libations “up to the very ear of the vessel,” meaning by this image, taken from common practice, that the gods should be worshiped with hymns and music that are perceived by the ear. The special organization of the Pythagorean school represents a very important characteristic feature of Pythagoreanism. The reason for such an organization of the school lies in Pythagoras' sublime understanding of his relationship to his listeners. The usual relationship of the teacher with his students did not satisfy Pythagoras: he saw his friends in them, became deeply attached to them and wanted to unite them with strong moral ties; and Pythagoras had the most ideal concept of a friend. “My friend is another me,” he said, “friends have everything in common.” From here naturally followed the need for complete moral communication between friends and the destruction of private property (ο ὗ τοι τὰς οὐσίας κοινὰς ἔθεντο n. 20). These two features also determine what form of community life Pythagoras should have chosen as a model for his school. This form was the family (οἶ κος) with its strong moral and material connection. Indeed, the Pythagorean community was called ὁμακοίον. It is quite clear that Pythagoras had to choose his student friends with great care. To do this, he first studied the facial features of the person coming, observed him in movement and at rest, and, from there making a conclusion about the moral qualities of the person coming, either accepted or sent him away. Of the qualities required of a visitor, Porfiry mentions only one - the ability to remain strictly silent; Pythagoras did not order “swallows”, that is, people who were talkative and intemperate in their tongues, to be accepted into their homes. - Of course, the close unification of the Pythagorean school should have been greatly facilitated by the fact that whole families, husbands, wives and children were accepted into the ὁμακοίον (n. 20), so that, entering the ὁμακοίον, the Pythagorean did not break off his natural ties, did not leave outside the community those dear to him who could force him to remember with regret the world he left behind. The Pythagoreans were divided according to the volume of the course of the sciences they studied into two classes - acousmatists, who listened only to the general foundations of the sciences (μόνας κεφαλαιώδεις ὑποθήκας τῶν γραμμά των), and mathematicians who took a precisely developed course of sciences ( ἐπιστήμης λόγον ). The laws and rules of Pythagoras covered all aspects of the life of the Pythagoreans (ἐκτος τούτων (νόμων) πράττειν μηδὲν), and they obeyed them as divine commands. The establishment of the school turned out to be the most lasting and, one might think, beneficial work of Pythagoras. Having experienced the era of its political power and philosophical prosperity - at a time when the philosophy of Pythagoras was presented to the Pythagoreans themselves in the form of a few sparks, dark and subtle - the Pythagorean community continued to live an isolated life, according to the rules of its idolized founder; and for many generations it still amazed society with the strength of its moral connection, the indestructible mutual loyalty of its members and their high moral restraint: they never humbled themselves to tears and sobs, or to caresses and ingratiation, and did not give in to anyone’s requests when it came to what they considered a deviation from the principles of their teacher. The mutual loyalty of Damon and Phintius withstood the most severe test on the part of Dionysius, but in vain their tyrant asked them to accept him third into their friendly alliance; The Pythagoreans turned out to be adamant here too. Pythagoras was high in his personal merits and in his historical merits. From the beginning to the end of his life, Pythagoras remains a bright personality and attracts sympathy in all his everyday situations, whether he is as a philosopher in the true, high sense of the word, with tireless zeal seeking wisdom in its very cradle - in the east, - or as a political figure - a fighter for freedom and better laws, - or as a private person with ascetic inclinations, with a meek, loving soul - is he he is like a great miracle worker, unparalleled, using his wonderful gift most often for the benefit of man; finally, when he is driven, persecuted, he still remains handsome, tall, already as a result of the deep, selfless love that he managed to arouse in his students. The merit of Pythagoras as a political figure lies in the fact that through his activities he prevented for a long time all civil strife - as a philosopher - in the fact that he pointed out the mathematical correctness of everything that happens in nature, and even more so in the fact that he was the first to bring to Greece the doctrine of the immortality of the soul and proposed a moral teaching, which, having been implemented in practice, brought forward a whole society of people who, it is true, were not disposed to an open social life, but, in any case, not dangerous to anyone, morally pure (comparatively) and strictly honest. The news that Pythagoras was in Delos during the uprising of the Crotonians against the Pythagoreans (n. 55) is the only one clearly recognized by Porphyry as erroneous (n. 56 et 15). Samos, Metapontus and Phliunt (Lycus) argued about the honor of being the birthplace of Pythagoras, but Cleanthes, Apollonius and Diogenes consider Samos to be the birthplace of Pythagoras. According to Apollonius, Pythagoras listened to Anaximander (b. 610), and according to Aristoxenus, Pythagoras left Samos 40 years from birth during the reign of Polycrates (565–522 BC according to Schlosser). The origin of Mnesarchus is unknown with certainty. Some call him a Samian, Cleanthes a Tyrian, which easily and naturally explains the fact that he gives his son an Eastern education and sends him to Tire for this purpose; but Diogenes, who “accurately expounded everything concerning the philosopher” (Pythagoras), expresses the opinion, which is also known to Cleanthes, that Mnesarchus was a Tyrrhenian from the islands of the Aegean Sea. “Many (οἱ πλείους) say that Pythagoras studied with the Egyptians, Chaldeans and Phoenicians” (6 num.). Diogenes lists the peoples with whom Pythagoras studied, in general similar to these many: “Egyptians - Arabs - Chaldeans - Jews.” According to Antiphon, apparently, a journey to the east (unmentioned) must precede the trip to Egypt: having described in detail Pythagoras’ stay in Egypt, Antiphon speaks directly about his return to Ionia and the opening of a school by him and Samos. ἀ ταλίαν , συμπλεύσαντα τὸν Πυθαγόραν , νέον ὄντα κομιδ ῇ, σφόδρα ο ὗ σαν εὐδαίμονα, καὶτόθ᾿ ὕ στερον εἰς αὐτὴν ἀποπλεῦσαι. Porphyry's own belief in the miracles of Pythagoras is expressed quite clearly. “If we must believe those who wrote about him (Pythagoras) - and these are ancient and worthy writers (παλαιοῖς τε ο ὖ σι καὶ ἀξιολόγοις) - then his influence extended to dumb animals" (23 num.). Further (num. 28) he states that the miracles of Pythagoras are told “constantly and consistently.” The importance of mathematics in the philosophy of Pythagoras in Porphyry seems to be placed in connection with the mathematical education of Pythagoras, "(Num. 6). The famous “tetract” is mentioned by Porfiry, but without any explanation (num. 20). This can be assumed from the fact that Pythagoras also proved the simultaneous appearance of beans and a person from the same rot, and this is more of a chemical experiment than a philosophical proof (num. 44). If there is a hint of the physical cause of the supposed sounds emitted by the celestial spheres - movement (in the words: “he heard ... the harmony of the spheres of the universe and the stars moving in these spheres,” n. 30), then in any case the hint is very unclear. The saying of Pythagoras: “the sound made by copper as a result of striking it is the voice of the demon imprisoned in copper,” judging by the context, should be considered simply a figurative expression (n. 41). "" ". Envy in the sayings of Pythagoras has both meanings. "Τούς ἐκ τοῦ νικ ᾶ ν φθόνους φεύγειν" (15). "Φιλοτιμίαν φεύγειν καὶ φιλοδοξίαν, τώπερ μάλιστα ψθόνον ἐργάζεσθον "(32). Β In the first saying, of course, of course, the envy is not of the winner, but of strangers, in the last - the envy of himself ambitious. The Persian flavor of this view is too clear. This rule relates to the previous one as a conclusion or further development; its meaning: “do not deceive your principal”, the meaning of the previous one is I “do not deceive (at all)”. ... ἤ κιστα But perhaps the consistent implementation of this teaching was not part of Pythagoras’s vision. Porfiry contains evidence on this issue that does not entirely agree with each other. Thus, according to Eudoxus (item 7), Pythagoras avoided killing and those who kill ( κεχρὴσθαι) completely, strictly, as one might assume from the tone of the story; by nn. 34 and 43 (one might think) Pythagoras ate only some parts of the sacrificial meat. But, according to n. 39, he prohibits the destruction (φθείρειν) only of animals harmless to the human race (ζῶον ὂ μηδέ βλαβερὸν ε ἶ ναι πέφυκε τῶ ἀνθρωπείω γένει); and by n. 45 prohibits the consumption of μήτραν, and since we are not talking about sacrificial animals, one might think that he allows the consumption of the remaining parts of all animals in general.