Крест и распятие Спасителя (Археологический очерк)

Now for Christians, “The Cross is the guardian of the entire universe; The cross is the beauty of the Church; The cross is the kingdom of kings; The cross is a true statement; The cross is the glory of angels and the plague of demons” (luminary). Before, before the glorious death of Christ on the Cross, the cross was not only not revered by the pagans, but was an object of great and universal contempt, a sign of “misfortune and death,” since execution by crucifixion was assigned to the greatest criminals and was the most terrible, painful and shameful of all types of executions 18 . True, this type of execution was known in ancient times among the Medes, Persians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, and Greeks, but it was most widespread among the Romans, who used this execution on a large scale. However, even among the Romans, initially only slaves were subjected to crucifixion, and therefore it was usually called “slave execution” (servile supplicium). Subsequently, the use of this execution was extended to the lower classes of freedmen, but it was never applied to Roman citizens. But both slaves and freedmen were subjected to this execution for the most serious crimes, such as: sea robbery, open highway robbery, murder, perjury, high treason, rebellion. Jewish law did not know this cruel and shameful execution. According to the Talmud, “four capital punishments were handed over to the great Sanhedrin (the highest Jewish court of the time of Christ): stoning, burning, death by sword and strangulation,” and of these executions, stoning had the greatest use. True, the ancient Jews also used one more type of execution - hanging “on a tree,” i.e. on a pillar, after the execution, to increase her shame; but this hanging can in no way be identified with the crucifixion. Thus, if Jesus Christ had been tried and executed according to Jewish laws during the period of independent political life of the Jewish people, then for the blasphemy of which He was accused (Mark 14:64; Luke 22:69–71), He would have been subject to execution by stoning. But by the time of Christ, the Jews were deprived by the Romans of the “right of the sword,” i.e. the right to condemn and execute death sentences; therefore, of necessity, before Pilate, they brought forward another accusation against the Savior of rebellion against the Roman authorities, that He “called Himself Christ the King” and allegedly “forbade giving taxes to Caesar” (Luke 23:2). Accusing the Savior of blasphemy for a representative of the Roman authorities and Roman law, of course, would not have mattered and could not lead to the death penalty. Accused of rebellion against Caesar and not having the rights of a Roman citizen, the Savior, according to Roman laws, was subject to execution on the cross. A Christian, looking with gratitude and love at the sign of the Cross of Christ, reverently worshiping it, must know and remember what kind of execution it was and how great suffering the Savior endured on the Cross to save people. All the details of the execution on the cross breathe cruelty and are aimed at the shame of the crucified. Usually among the Romans the death penalty was carried out immediately after the sentence was pronounced. Therefore, preparations for the execution of Christ on the cross began immediately after Pilate pronounced the sentence 19. The executors of the sentence, the Roman soldiers, removed from the Savior the bloody scarlet robe in which He had been mockingly dressed before them, and returned to the Sufferer His former, own clothes. It is not known whether the crown of thorns was removed from the Savior’s head. In the meantime, usually hastily, they prepared the instrument of execution itself - the cross. The Romans distinguished mainly three types, or forms of the cross; Christ could have been crucified on one of these types of cross. The oldest and simplest form of the cross, known among many ancient peoples (Egyptians, Carthaginians, Phoenicians and ancient Jews), was obtained by superimposing a horizontal line on a vertical one in the form of the letter T. When carrying out an execution on this cross, a transverse beam was placed on top of a pole dug into the ground or otherwise firmly placed in a vertical position, having the same length at both ends, and the hands of the condemned man were attached to these ends. death. The body of the crucified man hung along a vertical pole; for greater stability of the body, the legs of the crucified person were also attached to this pillar. The Romans called this form of cross the crux commissa - a bound cross. The second type of cross, the so-called crux decussata - a knocked down cross, was formed from two beams of equal length, connected together in the middle at a right angle. In its design, it resembles the letter X. At the place of execution, the two ends of such a cross were dug into the ground until it could stand firmly; then the condemned man's arms and legs were stretched out and attached to all four ends of him. This type of cross is known among us under the name of St. Andrew's cross, since, according to legend, St. was crucified on such a cross. Apostle Andrew the First-Called. The third type of cross was known to the Romans under the name crux immissa - a hammered cross. This cross was made up of two beams of unequal length - one longer, the other shorter. A shorter, horizontal beam was transversely attached to the vertical, longer beam at some distance from its upper end. In outline it has the form †. In crucifixion, the condemned man's arms were attached to the ends of a horizontal bar, and his legs, joined together, were attached to the lower end of a horizontal long beam. In order for the body of the crucified to have more support on the cross and its weight not to tear his hands away from the nails, another small beam or wooden nail, which in its shape resembles a horn, was attached in the middle of the vertical pillar. It was supposed to serve as a seat for the crucified, which explains the expressions “to sit on a sharp cross” (acuta cruce sedere), “to sit on the cross” (cruce inequitare), “to rest on the cross” (cruce requiscere) and so on. It was on such a four-pointed cross (crux immissa) that our Savior was crucified. This is a general church belief that has passed into liturgical books. The fathers and teachers of the Church (Justin Martyr, Blessed Jerome, Blessed Augustine, St. John of Damascus, etc.) use comparisons of the Cross of Christ that leave no doubt about this. Four sides of the sky, a flying bird, a man floating or praying with outstretched hands, an oared ship, a plowing farmer, etc. - the usual comparisons they use for the Cross, and all these comparisons are applicable only to a four-pointed cross - a hammered cross. Blazh. Augustine also gives very definite evidence of this when he speaks of the Cross of Christ: “there was a breadth over which the arms were stretched, a length rising from the ground on which the body was nailed, a height protruding upward above the cross beam” 20. The last words apply exclusively to the four-pointed cross. This is finally confirmed by one small, but very valuable, decisive remark on this issue, the remark of the Evangelist Matthew: “and they placed an inscription over His head, signifying His guilt: This is Jesus, the King of the Jews” (27:37). Here the evangelist speaks of that tablet (titulus, αιτία) on which the Savior’s imaginary guilt was indicated. But in order to place such a tablet above the head of Christ, it is necessary that the main vertical pillar be continued at the top, above the cross beam, i.e. it is necessary that the cross be four-pointed, and not three-pointed connected (commissa T) and also not knocked down (decussata X). If, nevertheless, ancient writers (Tertullian, Origen, etc.) and other evidence from antiquity (coins, monograms, ancient Christian images) contain indications of the three-pointed Cross of Christ, then this evidence can only suggest the idea that Christian antiquity itself did not immediately decide the question regarding the shape of the sacred tree of the Cross on which the Savior of the world was crucified. And the disagreement in this case is all the more natural and understandable because Christianity was accepted by the same Romans, who knew several forms of the cross. The preparation of such a cross did not require much time and was simple: it was only necessary to properly fasten two beams - and the cross was ready. The convicted person himself had to carry the cross to the place of execution. This was a great mockery of the feelings of the one being crucified, of his natural love of life and hatred of the instrument of his death. Not to mention the fact that carrying the cross itself, often over long distances (usually outside the city), was hard work and new torment. And the Savior, tormented by scourging, gross bullying of Roman soldiers and the trial itself, carried His cross along the path that Christians later received the name via dolorosa (sorrowful path), outside the city, to Golgotha, the place of His last torment and death. The exhausted Savior needed the help of Simon of Cyrene to reach the place of execution with the cross. Usually, according to Roman laws, even here, at the place of execution, the torture of the condemned was not limited to crucifixion, but beforehand he was also subjected to torture, the cruelty of which was not always the same. According to the testimony of Justin, one Carthaginian commander (Hanno) was first subjected to scourging, then, having gouged out his eyes, he was wheeled on the wheel and, finally, he was nailed to the cross already dead. Caesar's order to first kill the captured robbers and then crucify them was considered an expression of high humanity and condescension on the part of this commander. Usually the death penalty was preceded by scourging. But since Christ was scourged in the courtyard of Pilate’s praetorium, here, on Golgotha, He was given over only to crucifixion. According to the testimony of the evangelists, the Savior was offered a drink before the crucifixion. Matthew, according to his taste, calls it “vinegar mixed with gall” (Matthew 27:34), and Ev. Mark, based on the composition of the drink, calls it “wine with myrrh” (Mark 15:23). Myrrh was the name given to the sap of the myrrh tree, white in color and very fragrant, flowing from the tree either by itself or after an incision, like the sap of our birch. In air, this juice thickened and then turned into resin 21. This resin was mixed with sour wine and, perhaps, with other bitter substances. The effect produced by such a drink seemed to dull or lull the nerves, and at the same time weaken the sensitivity of a person. This means that such a drink could at least partially ease the terrible torment on the cross. The offering of this drink to the Savior was a matter of compassion and, undoubtedly, not on the part of the Romans, but of the Jews. Roman law did not know leniency towards those crucified and executed, and according to this law, it was not supposed to give those being crucified a drink that would ease their suffering. This was a purely Jewish custom. The Talmud says: “everyone who was sentenced to death by the Sanhedrin was given strong wine to drink (according to another place in the Talmud, a solution of incense in wine, and according to Maimonides, grains of incense in a cup of wine) in order to dull their senses and fulfill the scripture - Proverbs. 31:6. According to the same Talmud, this drink was prepared by noble women in Jerusalem. Probably, the Romans, sparing some of the institutions of the Jews, left them this custom of mercy and leniency towards executed criminals. As a mercy, this drink was offered to the Savior. But the One who completely freely and voluntarily went to death and torment, who at every moment of this torment could stop it completely, did not want to taste the offered drink. Preparations for the crucifixion itself did not require much time. Usually, the finished cross was dug into the ground with its lower end until it stood firmly. The cross itself was not made high, and the feet of the crucified man were not far from the ground. The condemned were crucified on crosses that had already been placed, and, therefore, first the cross had to be strengthened in a vertical position, and not placed on the ground and dug into the ground together with the condemned person nailed to it. If there are examples of such crucifixion, i.e. through the nailing of the condemned to a cross lying on the ground, were encountered, according to the testimony of acts of martyrdom, then these examples must be considered nothing more than exceptions from the usual method of Roman crucifixion. The Savior, undoubtedly, was crucified already on a cross fixed in the ground. The clear and positive testimonies of the Church Fathers (St. Cyprian, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom, St. Augustine, etc.) leave no doubt about this. After the cross was fixed in the ground, they began the crucifixion itself. A new shame of the “slave execution”, a new mockery of the feelings of the crucified person, was that before the crucifixion his clothes were removed and he was crucified naked. Evangelists testify that before His crucifixion, Jesus Christ’s clothes were also removed; perhaps, only the λέντιον was left on Him - that girdle on the hips, which is spoken of in some historical documents and which is found in almost all images of the Savior’s crucifixion. In any case, the expression “naked” - γυμνός (nudus), where it is used in relation to crucified people, does not exclude such a girdle, and natural modesty requires it. Although the Cross of the Savior was not as high as artists usually depict, lifting a person’s body onto it and nailing it with nails required some devices. Ladders were attached to the crossbar. Two of the executioners climbed onto them and used ropes to lift the condemned man, while those remaining below helped them. Raised to the proper height by the hands, he was tied with ropes to the crossbar. Now that he could stay at the height of the cross without outside help, the most terrible moment came: two huge iron nails were placed on his wrists and driven into the tree with a strong blow of a hammer. Other crucifiers standing below were at that time nailing the condemned man’s legs to a vertical post. For this purpose, the legs were either stacked below one another and one huge nail was driven through both at once, or two nails were used, nailing each leg with them separately. It is not known exactly how the Savior’s feet were nailed, with one or two nails. Some Church Fathers (St. Gregory of Nazianzus, Egyptian Bishop of Nonnus) point to one nail for the Savior’s feet, while others (St. Gregory of Tours, Cyprian) speak of four nails - two for the hands and two for the feet 22. But at the same time, the Church Fathers unanimously testify that during the crucifixion of the Savior, not only the hands, but also the feet were nailed. The Savior's crucifixion ended with the nailing of a tablet over His head indicating His imaginary guilt. “And they placed an inscription over His head, signifying His guilt: This is Jesus, the King of the Jews” (Matthew 27:37, cf. Mark 15:26; Luke 23:38; John 19:19). This was the white tablet (titulus, αιτία), which was usually carried to the place of execution in front of the condemned person or hung around his neck. On this tablet above the Savior it was written in the Roman (Latin) language of the court, then commonly used Greek and local Hebrew languages: “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.” Thus, remaining faithful to Roman law, Pilate identified the Savior’s guilt as a rebel. With the end of the Savior's crucifixion, His greatest, indescribable suffering on the Cross began. The description of the torments crucified by one doctor (Richter) gives some idea of ​​these sufferings, from their physical side. The unnatural, forced position of the body, he says, with the arms constantly outstretched for a long time, must be such torture that words cannot describe. It is impossible to make the slightest movement without causing unbearable pain to the whole body, and especially to the parts nailed and tormented by scourging. The nails are driven into areas where many very sensitive nerves and tendons connect. And now, partly damaged, and partly strongly compressed, they cause special, very sensitive pain. The wounded parts, constantly exposed to the air, should become inflamed and gradually turn blue, then black. The same is done in other parts of the body, where the blood retained by excessive stretching of the body comes to stagnation. The inflammation of these parts and the resulting suffering increases with every moment... Blood does not have free access to the lungs. All this, squeezing the heart and straining the veins, produces a terrible, as if anxious, state in the body... And death approaches slowly, through a gradual numbness of the nerves, veins and muscles, which begins at the extremities and gradually moves inward, to the more sensitive parts. And so, until the death desired for the crucified comes, they, despite the loss of blood during scourging and on the cross, despite the inflammation of the wounds caused by the heat of the sun, despite the most painful thirst, usually for more than 12 hours, and sometimes until the next day and even evening, hesitate between life and death. There were cases that the crucified remained alive until the third day, when only painful death by starvation put an end to their suffering. Our Savior was betrayed to such the most terrible of executions - the invention of the highest human cruelty. The suffering of His most pure body was indescribable; our hearts are seized with trembling horror when we imagine this suffering. And He suffered, sinless, pure, without guilt. He suffered not for His sins, but for the countless sins of the human race, which He took upon Himself, which weighed with unbearable weight on the pure soul of Christ. Already in the Garden of Gethsemane, under the weight of human sins and iniquities, He cried out: “My soul is sorrowful even to death” (Matthew 26:38; Mark 14:34), “grieved” (Matthew 26:27), “grieved” (mourned) (Mark 14:33), “horrified” (Mark 14:33). On the cross, the feeling of alienation from God, the painful weight of human sins caused the exclamation from the most pure lips of Christ: “My God, My God! What have you left Me with?” (Matthew 27:46; Mark 15:34). And these people, for whom Christ suffered and died on the cross, with their ridicule and mockery poured a new drop of torment into the great cup of suffering of the Savior of the world. A diverse crowd of people passing by Calvary from the city and into the city, members of the Sanhedrin loudly celebrating their victory over Christ, Pharisees, scribes, rude Roman soldiers, and finally, even the robbers executed with Christ cruelly and impudently mocked the crucified Divine Sufferer, poured out streams of their hatred and malice on Him. And the Savior did not hear a single sound of compassion and consolation, not a single gentle word or word of love during these terrible moments of His suffering on the cross. Thus passed the hours of the most excruciating physical and mental suffering of Christ the Savior. After the pious thief’s repentance and expression of faith—perhaps the first consolation for the Sufferer—suddenly, instead of the bright rays of the southern sun (it was a little after noon), thick, wonderful darkness descended on the earth and enveloped Golgotha ​​and Jerusalem. This was a testimony to the people of God the Father that He sees the suffering of His Son, this was a formidable Divine warning to the lawless, like dogs, who surrounded the cross of the Savior (“they have beaten me to death” Ps. 21:17). Perhaps at this time, when the crowd, frightened by the menacing darkness, thinned out at the cross and, taking advantage of this, people who loved Him approached the Sufferer, a deeply touching scene occurred of the expression of the care and love of the dying Divine Son for His beloved Mother. Around the ninth hour according to the Jewish reckoning, and according to ours around the third hour in the afternoon, the torment of the Lord reached its highest degree. "My God! My God! Why have you forsaken me? - breaks out from the chest of the Divine Sufferer, and then, when the most painful of sufferings on the cross, the incomparable languor of terrible thirst take possession of Christ, His lips utter the first and only word caused by bodily suffering. “I’m thirsty!” - said the Sufferer. Having tasted the sour drink offered in a sponge soaked with it, He called out in a loud voice: “It is finished!” (John 19:32) and then - “Father, into Your hands I commend My spirit” (Luke 23:46). It's done! The earthly life of the God-man is over; the greatest unparalleled feat of suffering and love of the Divine Sufferer is over; all the predictions of Scripture about Him were fulfilled. The one and only sacrifice of the Sinless One for human sins was accomplished on the Cross of Calvary. Redemption and salvation of people took place on the Cross! The information for this article was taken from the book of Prof. N. Makkavesky “Archaeology of the history of the suffering of the Lord Jesus Christ”, Kiev, 1891. The usual form of a sentence of death on the cross was expressed in the words of the judge: “ibis ad (or in) crucem” - “go (go) to the cross!” In Psalm. 130. Wed. Epist. 120, Tract, in joh. 118. Some interpreters, taking into account that myrrh was very expensive, suggest that Ev. Mark called the simple resin myrrh, since myrrh was better known as one of the genera of resin, i.e. using the specific name instead of the generic name (synecdoche). The iconography of the Orthodox Church accepted the second tradition, and the Roman Catholic one - the first. You might be interested in: