Tertullian and his Apology

We meet the outstanding Christian writer-apologist Tertullian as an adult. Relatively little is known about Tertullian’s childhood and adolescence. He was born around 160 in Carthage in the family of a centurion (centurion) of the proconsular troops, in a pagan environment (“We came from your midst,” he addresses the pagans). In his youth, he received the usual education for wealthy people of that time: he graduated from a rhetoric school in Carthage and a special law school. Then he went to Rome, where he acted in court as both a lawyer and a prosecutor, gaining quite wide fame for himself. There is reason to believe that the lawyer of the same name, mentioned in the Pandects (the main component of the Corpus juris civilis, a monument of Roman law from the time of Emperor Justinian, 6th century), is identical to Tertullian. We find information about the life of Tertullian in his own writings and mentions of him by ancient writers - Eusebius Panphilus, Bishop of Caesarea (IV century), and Blessed Jerome († c. 420) 1. During the Roman period of his life, Tertullian, by his own admission, indulged in all the pagan pleasures of riotous metropolitan life, was a lover of thrills, theatrical and circus shows (gladiatorial fights), and considered Christianity madness. “But sensuality could not satiate and lull the soul, and the wondrous sight of the extraordinary firmness of the martyrs turned the persecutor into a friend of the unjustly persecuted: [around 190–105] Tertullian received Holy Baptism. The following year he married a Christian” (N.V. Savelyev - Rostislavich. Tertullian and his century. St. Petersburg, 1848, p. 5). Returning to his native Carthage, Tertullian left government service; he devoted his leisure time to the study of philosophy and theology. In 195 he received the rank of presbyter 2. While still at school, Tertullian learned Greek, which he spoke fluently; he knew well the works of some ancient philosophers, lawyers, and physicians, and was fluent in the art of oratory (it was no coincidence that he was compared to Demosthenes). Tertullian dedicated his knowledge and talents received from the Lord to the service of Christianity. Already in the rank of presbyter, he took up active writing. The language of his writings is replete with legal terms: he skillfully uses his knowledge of jurisprudence, exposing pagan judges in violating elementary legality. Defending Christianity, Tertullian sometimes uses arguments that were given by Greek apologists, such as his older contemporaries - Tatian or Bishop Theophilus of Antioch. But what was rather chaotic and confusing for them, under the pen of Tertullian, formed into a coherent system, logical and inspiredly convincing. It is unlikely that Emperor Severus (193–211) was aware of the writings of Greek apologists. But we have little doubt that Tertullian’s writings were known to him. A zealous defender of Christianity, he became a defender of the true achievements of Roman society, defended the principles of justice, equality of citizens before the law, freedom of conscience, and respect for the views of others. He loved to teach and instruct, but perhaps even more, he loved to argue and denounce. The proconsul and his council, pagan society, zealots of Old Testament legality, heretics, unworthy clergy - he brought down on everyone the force of his denunciations and all the bitterness of ridicule. His style, excited, uneven, burning, well reflected the paradox of his bold thought and his frantic nature. He minted short formulas of unforgettable beauty and power, and he also lost himself in the repetition of rather monotonous, almost colorless phrases; he could write simply and convincingly, but he left some texts that needed to be solved like riddles, and sometimes he stooped to court twists and chicanery. A man of great and clear mind, he sometimes forgot to turn to him for advice; He perfectly described the life of the Christian community, peaceful and orderly, but he lived without knowing peace himself, alien to all worldly prudence. Tertullian’s rejection of the contemporary Roman (pagan) civilization was deeper than that of the Greek-speaking apologists - Tatian (b. c. 120) or Bishop Theophilus of Antioch (end of the 2nd century): “He not only condemns its philosophical schools... but is also close to the view that civilization in general has spoiled and perverted man, suppressed his natural positive inclinations, building a whole world over them artificial and untrue values... Tertullian sees a way out of this situation in cynical simplification and a return to the natural state. However, in his opinion, this state of simplicity and naturalness can be achieved only through the Christian faith, self-knowledge and asceticism” (G.G. Mayorov. Formation of medieval philosophy. Latin Patristics. M., 1979, pp. 111–112). True faith, and not superstition, Tertullian believed, is always a feat, a breakthrough into the sphere of the spirit; the strength of faith can be directly proportional to the apparent absurdity (absurdity) of its provisions from the point of view of ordinary everyday reason. “I believe because it is absurd” (“credo, quia absurdum”) - this saying is attributed to Tertullian not without reason: corresponding paradoxes can be found in his writings. But the contrast between faith and reason that seems so sharp is removed if we consider them in the context of Revelation, which gives “unreasonable” faith a super-rational meaning. For Divine Revelation is incommensurable with human, rather limited ideas; and the more the truths of Revelation seem incomprehensible and impossible, the more reason there is for belief in their transcendence and truth. Rejecting reason grounded in everyday life, Tertullian also rejected elitist intellectualism, alien to faith: “What do Athens and Jerusalem have in common? At the Academy and the Church? (“De pracscriptione haereticorum”, ch. 7). This statement is often quoted, reproaching the thinker for obscurantism, even by Christian theologians. At the same time, it is somehow forgotten that Tertullian’s saying is a reminiscence of a much deeper, fundamental thought of the holy Apostle Paul: “But we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to the Jews, and foolishness to the Greeks, but to those who are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ, the Power of God and the Wisdom of God” (1 Cor. 1:23-24). Tertullian valued human and natural reason, natural common sense very highly (see: De testimonio animae, chapter 3). According to his deep conviction, the human soul, unspoiled by civilization, is Christian by nature: “Let a person begin to listen to the voice of his soul, and then the True God will not be unknown to him” (“De testimonio animae”, Chapter 2). That is why the Lord Jesus Christ chose the apostles not from philosophers and scribes, but from simple fishermen. Any departure from pure faith towards its rationalization and philosophization is fraught with a perversion of Christian teaching and heresy. Therefore, Tertullian devoted so much strength and energy to the criticism of Judaism and Gnosticism. It was no coincidence that he called the synagogues of that time “sources of persecution” of Christians: Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea (IV century), describes in “Ecclesiastical History” the joyful haste with which the Jews collected brushwood for the fire to which the Hieromartyr Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, was sentenced, † 167 (see “Theological Works,” collection 24. pp. 127–128). Hence the pathos of Tertullian’s famous work “Against the Jews” (“Adversus Judaeos”). With the evolution of Judaism in the I-II centuries. The spread of Gnosticism is also closely related. Gnosticism appears during this period as an attempt to find a certain ideological synthesis of various religious and philosophical movements and esoteric traditions, which objectively created the ground for the emergence of a wide variety of heresies 3 . Tertullian wrote not only against the Gnostics in general, but also against individual Gnostic schools (against the Valentinians, against Hermogenes, against Marcion) with his characteristic passion and ardor. Abstract metaphysics and pure “philosophical” speculation were alien to him: he either ridiculed the Gnostics, or simply forbade them to use the Holy Scriptures and interpret it: there is no need to search and explore when everything has already been found and explained: “Why Athens when there is Jerusalem?” It was these words that turned out to be fatal: the fanatics of subsequent centuries used them in their campaign against ancient culture in general. Philosophy, which Clement, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of bright, broad mind, considered a gift sent from God to the Hellenes in order to “prepare the way for the Lord,” was declared a relic of paganism. Origen, presbyter of Alexandria, subsequently had to justify himself in the fact that he was engaged in “secular sciences” and defend the educational program of the Alexandrian Catechetical School (the first Christian university), into which these sciences were introduced. Speaking about Tertullian’s maximalism, we should also say about his passion for Montanism. In 200–207 Tertullian joined the apocalyptic community, the founder of which was a certain Montanus from Phrygia (according to Eusebius Pamphilus, Montanus began to prophesy in 172, announcing the imminent descent of Heavenly Jerusalem). Montanism revealed severe ascetic features: it prescribed a more strict spiritual discipline than that accepted by the Church at that time, in particular, intense fasting (dry eating), flight from persecution, second marriage in the event of the death of one of the spouses, etc. were prohibited. Professor I.V. Popov believes that Tertullian’s rigorism could not be satisfied with the degree of moral strictness that characterized the morals of the church majority at that time - and this is the reason for his passion for Montanism (Lecture notes on patrolology. Sergiev Posad, 1916 p. 09). Let us add that Tertullian was attracted to the Montanist community by the attempt to revive the spirit of apostolic Christianity in the face of the threat of the secularization of the Church. The spiritual enthusiasm and prophecy of the Montanists were internally close to Tertullian, who was inclined to consider them “pneumatics” (“spiritual”), as opposed to ordinary Christians - “psychics” (“spiritual”). It is important not to forget that the Montanists recognized all Christian Sacraments and holidays; there were no dogmatic differences between them and representatives of other Christian communities. In the truths of the faith, which Tertullian defended in his writings against heretics: Marcion, Valentinus, Hermogenes, Praxeus and others, the Montanists agreed with the Church. Therefore, Tertullian the Montanist, rightly emphasizes Archpriest A.M. Ivantsov-Platonov wrote his works against heretics, remaining completely orthodox. “One can even say more: the Montanists treated the Gnostic and Patripassian heresies with greater ardor and passion than the Orthodox... If they can be reproached, it would be more likely for excessive ardor and harshness against heretics than for a lack of zeal for the defense of Christian truth” (Heresies and schisms of the first three centuries of Christianity. M., 1887, p. 242). Apparently, Tertullian understood the falsity of the ascetic excesses of the Montanist community. Subsequently, he moved away from the Montanists and founded his own community in Carthage, according to the testimony of Blessed Augustine (“De haeresibus”, cap. LXXXVI). This community had its own church - a basilica: its remains were annexed to the Church by St. Augustine at the beginning of the 5th century. Tertullian died at an old age, around 222–223. The ancient teachers of the Church spoke with great praise of Tertullian's learning and talents and were well acquainted with his creations. The Hieromartyr Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage († 257. Comm. August 31), read the works of Tertullian every day and considered him his teacher (Filaret, Archbishop of Chernigov and Nizhyn. Historical teaching about the Fathers of the Church. Vol. 1. St. Petersburg.. 1859, p. 184). Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea, mentioned him as “one of the most illustrious” (“Ecclesiastical History,” book II, chapter 2), and Blessed Jerome of Stridon († c. 420) said that “in learning and precision of mind, Tertullian surpasses others” (“On Famous Men,” chapter 53). According to prof. L.P. Karsavina, Tertullian is “one of the most striking, irreconcilable and rhetorically fiery opponents of gnosis... one of the most characteristic representatives and even founders of Western Christianity...” (Holy Fathers and Teachers of the Church. Disclosure of Orthodoxy in their creations. Paris, 1920, p. 61). “Tertullian is not only a Christian thinker in the broad sense, but also an ecclesiastical thinker,” emphasizes G.G. Mayorov (op. cit., p. 116). Archpriest Georgy Florovsky believes that the ancient church custom of contrasting the Church and heresy, first of all, as love and discord, communication and loneliness, used by A.S. Khomyakov, goes back to Bishop Irenaeus and Tertullian of Lyon (Paths of Russian Theology. Paris, 1937, p. 278). Tertullian's influence on Byzantine (Greek-speaking) theology was, however, relatively small. This is explained, first of all, by the fact that he wrote in Latin. In addition, the reputation of a “montanist” created a certain prejudice towards him. And, naturally, one should not look for dogmatic certainty from him: Tertullian lived before the era of the Ecumenical Councils, when the very language of theology was just being created. As a writer, Tertullian stands at the origins of church Latin. Being a bilingual writer, equally fluent in two languages ​​- Greek and Latin, he was able to find or create equivalent new formations in the Latin language to convey complex theological terms from Greek. According to the calculations of the German researcher G. Gendler, Tertullian created 982 new terms in Latin (“Von Tertullian bis zu Ambrosius.” Berlin, 1978, S. 22). It should be especially noted that the origin of the central Christian term Trinity (from the Latin Tria†unites) goes back to Tertullian. “Many of his ideas,” notes V.V. Bychkov, served as a model, a “rule” (regula fidei) for his Latin followers right up to [Blessed] Augustine” (Aesthetics of Late Antiquity. M., 1981, p. 48). It is also worthy of attention that Tertullian writes with reverence about the Mother of God - the Virgin (“Apologeticum”. Ch. 21) long before the holy Cappadocian fathers. Tertullian's anthropology is of significant interest to modern theological thought. In his works, he sought answers to many cardinal questions of existence: about the nature and origin of the soul, about the purpose of man, about his future (posthumous) life, etc. We can say that the inquisitive philosopher Tertullian acted as a “brilliant questioner” of antiquity. Unlike later “questioners” closer to our time, such as Lev Shestov, Tertullian had the deepest faith and inner conviction that he was right; asking, he answered. The soul, according to Tertullian, is “the breath of God” (“Dei flatus”) (cf. Gen. 2:7). In this matter he follows Plato, for whom the soul is “divine, rational, monotonous and indivisible” (“Phaedo.” 80a). However, Plato's unconditional spiritualism is alien to him. Based on the testimony of the Holy Scriptures about the relative corporeality and possible (under special conditions) visibility of the soul (Rev. 6:9; Luke 10:23), he teaches that the soul is a “corpus sui generis” (“a body of its kind”), has its own appearance (habitus, effigies), a boundary (terminus), three dimensions (“On the soul,” ch. 8). Tertullian considers Plato’s theories about the pre-existence of souls “fabulous” and resolutely rejects (ibid., chapters 20 and 27), as well as the opinion that the soul is created only at the very moment of birth. Citing references to the Holy Scriptures (Gen. 25, 22–23, Luke 1, 41–44; 70–80, etc.). Tertullian argues that the development of the soul is connected with the growth of the body. The body for Tertullian has great value, it is “cardo salulis” (“anchor of salvation”) for the soul; “The body is washed [in the baptismal font] so that the soul may be cleansed of stains; the body is anointed so that the soul is sanctified; the body is marked so that the soul is strengthened; the body is overshadowed by the laying on of hands, so that the soul is sanctified by the Spirit...” (“On the Resurrection of the Flesh,” chapter 8). Tertullian teaches not about the destruction of the body, but about its change (demutatio) in the life of the next century, when the body will be resurrected in transformed flesh. During his lifetime, Tertullian was famous both among Christians and pagans. Death did not destroy this fame: of the works of Latin writers, only his “Apology” was soon awarded translation into Greek. Time has erased his mistakes and errors; In the grateful memory of posterity, he remained a courageous fighter for Christianity, fearlessly defending eternal truth with word and pen. Tertullian’s “Apology” (other Russian names for the same work: “Apologetic”, “Apologetics”) is perhaps the most famous of his works. “The question of the time of origin of “Apologetics” has been dealt with by as many scientists as have not dealt with any other question related to this work, and their opinions on this issue are different” (I. Shcheglov. Apologetician of Tertullian. – “Proceedings of the Kyiv Theological Academy.” 1887. No. 9, p. 3). Some researchers believe that the Apology was written by Tertullian shortly before his death, but the majority is inclined to believe that this work dates back to 197–199. N. Shcheglov convincingly proves that the “Apology” was written in 199–200, considering the following words from chapter 35 of this work to be the key to resolving this issue: “Where do Cassia, Nigra and Albina come from? 4 Where did those who lay in wait for the emperor “between two laurels” come from? Where do those who practiced on the palaestra come from to strangle him? Where did those who burst into the palace with weapons in their hands come from? They are more daring than all the Sigerians and Parthenians... 5 And now every day members and supporters of criminal parties are exposed: the trees were cut down, but the shoots survived” (quoted in new translation). European scientists Baronius and Mosheim recognized the mentioned attackers, who are discussed further in Tertullian, as followers of Albinus, and Tillemon, Lumper and Boehringer as followers of Niger. Niger was killed in 194 at the Battle of Les, and his followers continued resistance until 196, until they were defeated in Syria by Emperor Septimius Severus. The persecution of their remnant falls on the years 199–200, when, in all likelihood, the Apology was written. There is reason to believe that around 204 Tertullian undertook a journey from Carthage to Rome, where he presented to the Senate his “Apology” - an eloquent word in defense of Christians. This polemical work of Tertullian brought the author well-deserved fame and became widely known in the medieval world. Suffice it to say that “Apology” was among the printed publications in the “cradle” period of book printing: it was published in the original language in Venice in 1483 and 1494, in Paris in 1500 and 1502. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Editions of the Apology appeared translated into various European languages: French (1636), English (1655), Spanish (1657), German (1682), Italian (1756) and others. The first translation into Russian known to us belongs to Bishop Afanasy (Ivanov) of Kolomna and Tula (M., ed. Synodal Printing House, 1802). K.M. Mazurin, one of the subsequent translators of the Apology, wrote about this translation: “A very accurate translation of Apologetics, although, of course, outdated in language” (Tertullian and his works. M., 1893, p. XXVI). In 1847, a translation of “Apologetics” by E. Karneev was published in St. Petersburg. This translation was most likely made with the French intermediary translation in mind; in places it is inaccurate, in others it is a transcription; The phrases and insertions missing from the Latin original, added to the French translation of Genoude, are also present in the translation by E. Karneev. This translation has certain literary merits; N. Savelyev-Rostislavich in his review calls it “wonderful” (op. cit., p. 36), Archpriest A.M. Ivantsov-Platonov – “quite expressive” (Heresies and schisms of the first three centuries of Christianity. M., 1877, p. 235). “If you, the primates of the Roman Empire, in an open and elevated place, and almost at the very top of the city 6 for the judgment of the presiding judges, cannot clearly consider and examine before everyone what exactly the matter of Christians is,” Bishop Athanasius begins the translation of the “Apology,” and continues: then allow the truth, even though in the secret way of silent scripture, to reach your ears. She doesn't ask for anything less about her business; because she is not surprised at her condition, knowing that she is a stranger on earth, and that she conveniently finds enemies among strangers. And yet she has a birth, a home, hope, grace, and dignity in heaven, while at the same time she desires one thing, so that they do not condemn her without knowing about her. What do the laws that rule in their kingdom lose if she is listened to? But will their power be more glorified by this, so that they will condemn even the truth they have heard?” (Quinta Septima Florent Tertullian Defense of Christians. M., 1802, pp. 2–3). We present below the same fragment translated by E. Karneev, K.M. Mazurin, N. Shcheglova and, finally, a new translation. Even such a very limited comparison will help us understand the differences in the stylistic manner of the translators and some of the features of their translation. “If you, the supreme rulers of the Roman Empire, pronouncing judgment publicly, occupying the highest places in the state, do not have the power in the eyes of the people to carry out accurate research regarding Christians... then at least let the truth reach your ears through my modest written explanations. Truth does not require mercy, because persecution does not surprise it. Alien on earth, she has no doubt about finding enemies. Daughter of heaven, she has her throne there, there she finds her hopes, her due trust and her glory. Here she wants only one thing: not to be condemned before she is heard. What fear can you have about your laws, allowing truth to defend itself in the seat of their dominion?” (Tertullian’s works. Part 1. St. Petersburg, 1848, pp. 1–2). From the translation by K. M. Mazurin: “If you, the authorities of the Roman Empire, do not wish to allow Christians to defend their cause before the tribunal, where you sit on the most elevated place of the city for the public administration of the court; if, out of fear or shame, you deny the right of every accused person to answer his accuser... then let the truth reach your ears, albeit in a secret way with the help of silent letters! She does not ask for mercy, because she is not surprised by her situation. She knows that she lives on earth, and that among strangers it is always easy to meet enemies; and as for the rest, it has its origin, root soil, hope, love, glory in heaven. All she wants is for people not to judge her without knowing. What will the laws ruling the empire lose if the defense of truth is heard? Or perhaps the power of the latter will be revealed with greater brilliance if they condemn the truth without hearing it?” (Tertullian and his creations. M., 1893, p. 6). “If you, representatives of the Roman government, presiding in an open and high place, almost at the very top of the state, in order to conduct judgment, are not allowed to clearly examine and personally examine what the actual cause of Christians is... then let the truth be allowed to reach your ears, at least through the secret path of silent letters. She does not beg for anything for her cause, because she is not surprised at her situation. She knows that she lives on earth as a stranger, that it is easy for her to find enemies among strangers; but at the same time she also knows that she has her origin, home, hope, self-love, honor in heaven. Now all she wants is for people not to judge her without recognizing her. What will the laws ruling in their kingdom lose if they listen to her?” (Creations of Q. Sept. Flor. Tertullian. Part 1. Kyiv, 1910, pp. 81–82). “If you, representatives of the Roman state 7, standing in full view of the helm of power, to create justice and openly conduct investigations and proceedings; If it is impossible for you to find out what is the matter with Christians, let these silent lines still bring the truth to your ears in a roundabout way 8. She doesn't ask for anything for herself; Nothing in her situation surprises her. She knows that she is a wanderer on earth, that enemies can easily be found among strangers, that her homeland and her abode are in Heaven; She hopes in Heaven, where there is both mercy and love. She wants one thing: don’t judge her without knowing anything about her 9 . Listen to her: what will be lost from the laws, from their unlimited power in the state, if they listen to her?” By comparing these different translations, one can be convinced that each of them in its own way enriches the perception of the original, helps to grasp its semantic overtones, and penetrate deeper into the author’s intention. The last translation, with all its formal laconicism and lapidary style, has, perhaps, the greatest semantic capacity and significance: here obviously that wonderful metamorphosis took place, that crystallization of meaning, when each phrase, even taken out of context, does not lose its transparency and depth. In conclusion, we present the full text of the preface to the first Russian edition of Tertullian’s Apology (M., 1802), which has long become a bibliographic rarity. The preface is not signed, but, in all likelihood, belongs to the author of the translation - Bishop of Kolomna and Tula (later Archbishop of Novorossiysk and Dnieper) Afanasy (Ivanov). “Tertullian Quintus Septimius Florent, the Theologian, a native of the city of Carthage in Africa, from a noble family, a man most enlightened in various sciences, famous around the year 200 A.D. The story about him is this. He was a presbyter of Carthage, born of a pagan father who served as a centurion in an infantry regiment under the command of the Proconsul, the governor of the province. Soon after accepting the Christian faith, with his excellent talents, he became its zealous defender. He was very skilled in Philosophy, laws, History and pagan Theology. He was famous for his eloquence, understood the Holy Scriptures very well and was distinguished by his piety. In his young years, according to Jerome, he wrote a book about the concerns of marriage and, a few years later, about objections to the claims of heretics (de praescriptionibus contra Haereticos), of which a list was composed from the very beginning of the Church. Then, in order to restrain the fury of Severov 10 against Christians, persecution and stop the mouths of slanderers, he published in Rome a very learned Apology, or defensive reasoning, which, during the most cruel city ruler in the Parthian land from Plautian, raged against Christians, in the absence of the emperor, concealing his name, he inscribed to the city governors and judges. He also published other works against apostates and heretics, Marciopites, Valentinians, Jews and others, whom he struck with the lightning of his eloquence and the power of his arguments more than he convinced. This gave Vincent the opportunity to say: Tertullian has so many words, so many thoughts; and how many thoughts, so many victories. But, unfortunately for the entire Christian Church, this famous teacher fell into some errors. However, this Apology and many of his other works were written by him before he fell away from the Church; why they were accepted by her, as if they were truly Orthodox." Eusebius Pamphilus. Church history (Historia Ecclesiastica), book. II, ch. 2; Blessed Jerome of Stridon. On famous men (De viris illustribus), ch. 53. Some researchers question this. See: J. Klein. Tertullian. Christliches Bewusstsein und sittliche Forderung. Düsseldorf, 1940, pp. 268–273. Gnosticism should not be confused with gnosis (νγωσις - knowledge, knowledge) of Clement, Bishop of Alexandria († c. 215), Origen, Presbyter of Alexandria († 254), and other outstanding early Christian thinkers, who were highly valued by the holy fathers and who are considered teachers of the Church. Avidius Cassius - commander who proclaimed himself emperor during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (175); Gaius Pescenius Niger and Clodius Albinus, after the assassination of Emperor Commodus in 193, made illegal claims to the throne. Sigerius is a wrestler with whom Emperor Commodus loved to train. He subsequently strangled Commodus (193); Parthenius is a nobleman who enjoyed the favor of Emperor Domitian, but took part in a conspiracy that led to the death of the ruler (96). The Capitol is implied. Romani antistites - officials in Carthage - proconsul and governors of the province. Liceat veritati vel occulta via tacitarum litterarum ad avres vestras pervenire. Unum gestit interdum ne ignorata damnetur. Lucius Septimius Severus (146–211) - Roman commander, proclaimed emperor in 193. Saint Vincent of Lyria (lat. Vincent of Lerans, † before 450, commemorated May 24) is a monastic theologian, author of the spiritual instruction “Commonitornum” (under the pseudonym “Peregrinus”).