Глава четвертая. Риторико-стилистическое оформление гомилий св. Григория Паламы

(Preliminary remarks) The self-sufficiency and immanence of language make the question of the meaning and purpose of the description or reconstruction of linguistic elements seem unnecessary. The meaning and purpose are in the description itself and in the reconstruction itself and, therefore, they must be sought in the language itself. From this, in principle, a fair conclusion does not follow, however, that the question of meaning and purpose cannot be posed from the outside, so to speak, “exocentrically,” and in connection not with language, but with that which is outside language, although it can be expressed in language. This possibility arises from (and is realized thanks to) the universal, or more precisely, potentially universal, character of language and from its intermediary, in the broad sense of the word, function: language intermediaries connects with each other both people communicating with each other using language, and everything that is in the world with a person, if only this can all be expressed in language. ...for language cannot be confined to only one of its functions, and its esthetic function is among the most vital and inseparable. ...in human society, on the basis of the primary system formed by natural language, systems of secondary meanings constantly arise... § 1. Some introductory remarks: on the theory and methodology of literary analysis of the homilies of St. Gregory Palamas The topic presented in the title of this chapter requires clarification and explanation. Indeed, as soon as we try to get closer to understanding the author’s rhetorical skill (the content of this concept is far from self-evident), a kind of “childish questions” immediately arise, which are not so easy to answer: is literature the homily of St. Gregory Palamas? And if so, which one? To what genre do they belong, to what category of the taxonomic grid should they be classified - and what is their literary quality? The problem is further complicated by the fact that to this day no satisfactory principles and systems for the classification of homilies have been developed (the most satisfactory and promising approach to a solution to the problem that may appear in the future seems to be the one whose foundations were developed at the end of the 19th century by N. I. Barsov; see below); therefore, there is a risk on this side as well. In order to clarify the situation, one should look at the problem more broadly and try, in just a few words, to outline the path that philological science has traveled in the field of analysis and interpretation of literature as a text 1421 over the past twentieth century. One of the most important achievements of modern postclassical scientific 1422 literary criticism (or even thought about literature), in the center of which is structuralism and its branches, was the overcoming of the rigid opposition of form and content, characteristic of literary studies of the period of positivism (in parallel with this and a little earlier, similar processes took place in philosophy, which also abandoned the opposition of subject and object in favor of a new picture of the world, based on the recognition of the integrity of world phenomena, and a description language corresponding to this painting) 1423 . After research by R. O. Jacobson, French structuralists (C. Lévi-Strauss, R. Barth, Ts. Todorov, Y. Kristeva, etc.), as well as representatives of the Moscow-Tartu semiotic school (Yu. M. Lotman, Vyach. Vs. Ivanov, V. N. Toporov, B. A. Uspensky, E. M. Meletinsky, T. V. Tsivyan, T. M. Sudnik, L. G. Nevskaya, T. M. Nikolaeva, S. M. Tolstaya, I. P. Smirnov, A. V. Lavrov, R. D. Timenchik, etc.) seems to be an axiom that the form and content of a text written in a natural language or in a secondary language of art (cf. the term “secondary modeling systems”) not only cannot be opposed to each other, as something unideological - ideological 1424, but, on the contrary, form a dual ideological and semantic whole. Taking into account that the form is structural, that is, it consists of the smallest bricks - “structures” and can be decomposed into them during analysis, one should agree with Yu. M. Lotman that “... outside the structure, an artistic idea (as well as the verbal expression of any idea in general. - D. M.) is unthinkable. The dualism of form and content must be replaced by the concept of an idea that realizes itself in an adequate structure and does not exist outside this structure... A literary text is a complexly constructed meaning. All its elements are semantic elements” 1425. This definition includes the most important epithets: “artistic” and “semantic”. They bring us to the methodologically central question associated with the analysis of our source: is it possible - and if so, to what extent - to consider the texts/text of St. Gregory Palamas as artistic? This problem is not at all as trivial as it might seem at first glance. To try to somehow resolve the issues facing us, let us turn again to the ideological and conceptual analysis of world humanitarian thought. In this case, the concept of structure will be in the center of our attention. Any structure (the simplest example is a word), being a “phenomenon of meaning” 1426, carries within itself aesthetic content 1427; this, however, is not enough to recognize this or that text as artistic. According to the fair instructions of R. O. Yakobson, “only when a work of verbal art acquires poetry, a poetic function (our italics - D. M.), which determines everything else (in the text of the work - D. M.), can we talk about poetry" 1428. Jakobson develops his thought as follows: “Poetry is evident where the word is felt as a word (our italics - D.M.), and not as a simple reflection of an object...” 1429. In other words, literature is characterized by an aesthetic function, a special – aesthetically marked – attitude to the word, which, thanks to this aestheticization, begins to shimmer with new, hitherto unknown semantic facets, at the same time collecting and highlighting in itself, as if in focus, more and more new meanings. Developing this idea, Yu. M. Lotman says: “... the disclosure of the aesthetic function (our italics - D. M.) grammatical structure allows us to see the entire thickness of the text as aesthetically active" 1430. From this point of view (which we also share), all elements of the text “... inevitably become semantized” 1431, so that “... a new semantic space arises” 1432, which turns out to be the space of literature, literariness and the meanings expressed by this literature. The meaning of the text and its aesthetic origin are not only not closed to each other, but, on the contrary, show a tendency towards the deepest and most multi-level interpenetration. The variety of functions implemented in the text, which are in a state of dynamic equilibrium with each other and hierarchical subordination of one to the other, in one way or another depends on the variety of the author’s tasks. This juxtaposition can change in different eras: it looks shocking - to take an example from the history of Byzantium - the perception of icons by Michael Psellus not as sacred, but as purely aesthetic objects: such a hierarchical arrangement of the functions of the worship image (in the mind of Psellus) most sharply violated the hierarchy that was familiar and commonly used for his era, anticipating the aesthetic criteria of the New and Contemporary times 1433. Yu. M. Lotman wrote a lot about the typology of this kind of processes 1434. It seems to us that, developing this theory of Jakobson-Lotman functions, it is natural to try to apply it to the study of such a complex object that is beyond the scope of traditional literary criticism, which is the text of Palamas’s homilies. The above allows us to understand why we refuse – in relation to our object – to use the term “poetics”. This term can be applied to those works in which there is a conscious emphasis on poetry (in the sense of Jacobson) and on the poetic as the central and unconditionally dominant component of the aesthetic system. For Palamas, this attitude is neither self-sufficient nor valuable in itself. Therefore, in this case, it is more accurate to talk about the features of the language and style of homilies (understanding by style the writer’s manner, manifested in the very act of writing and subsequent editing of the written text 1435; one can also talk about the originality of their stylistics and “figurative-conceptual system” (the expression of D. I. Polyvyanny) 1436 - or use similar notations. The specificity of homilies sub specie philologiae is that it is a text, so to speak, with indirect artistry. Indirect artistry is characteristic of texts with a system (set) of functions in which the artistic function itself is not dominant. Palamas is characterized by an attitude toward artistry not as a technique, but only as an auxiliary means that allows him to achieve a greater expressive effect and thereby contribute to a more effective assimilation of Christian ideas by his Thessalonica flock. This prompts us to turn to a consideration of the language and style of the homilies in order to understand the ways in which the teacher of silence influenced the consciousness of this flock - or, in the words of one major researcher, “control through rhetoric” 1437. With this approach, the artistic and aesthetic organization of the text not only acquires “rights to citizenship” in primarily historical studies, but must also be subjected to careful and comprehensive consideration as an expression of the consciousness of its era. Modern Byzantine studies turns its attention to increasingly meaningful sources (rhetoric, homiletics, epistolography, church historiography, etc.), which is its distinctive feature. The starting point for this direction of research was the article by I. I. Shevchenko 1438; Among his most important achievements are the works of the largest Byzantinists of the 20th century X.-G. Beck, G. Hunger 1439 and others. However, despite the fact that considerable progress has been made in the study of secular literature and rhetoric; Despite the fact that there are a huge number of editions of various kinds of homilies, the conceptual understanding of this latter material (as already indicated in the Introduction) is more complicated. The classifications of homilies proposed by modern science according to thematic and functional characteristics do not give the impression of convincingness and consistency. So, regarding the three-part scheme of G.L. Kurbatov, who proposes to distinguish exegetical, edifying and theological sermons 1440, it should be noted that the distinction between the last two types is largely artificial: in most of the sermons of Palamas (and other authors, for example, Gregory the Theologian, John of Damascus, etc.), edification directly follows the theological part, flowing organically from it. It becomes clear that many features of the text material do not fit into the framework of this scheme. Otherwise, what about, for example, the Sixth Homily of Palamas, which (in general content and idea) should be classified as edifying sermons, but it contains both the theological teaching about the creation of the world (with exegesis of the initial chapters of the Book of Genesis), and the teaching about the passions of gluttony, satiety and intemperance, and, finally, valuable historical information about the life and culture of Thessalonians in the 14th century in.? (For an analysis of the language of this sermon, see § 2 of this chapter.) Moreover, edification without theology is impossible in principle, since the preacher must every time motivate this or that prescription by reference to the authority of Scripture and Tradition 1441; to isolate one from the other would be a sin against the original nature of the genre, assimilated by the consciousness of specific preachers. The system proposed by Fr. seems more flexible. by Robert F. Taft in the pages of the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium 1442. He proposes to distinguish sermons eortological (on a holiday), theological (explaining one or another point of doctrine), eulogy (or funeral speeches), socio-ethical (against the circus, shows, etc.) and occasional (like the famous cycle of Chrysostom “On Statues”) 1443. But this enumeration obviously confuses different principles of classification. First of all, separating eortological sermons into a special group does not seem appropriate, because both Easter homilies and sermons on other holidays (Annunciation, Nativity, Nativity of the Virgin Mary, Transfiguration, Ascension) touch on cardinal themes of theology, and, moreover, in the most sublime way (for example, the doctrine of atonement and the Economy of salvation is revealed in detail in the sermons on the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, written by St. John of Damascus, Photius and Nicholas Cabasilas; the same applies to sermons on the Nativity of Christ). If, however, when classifying sermons we separate the two criteria mixed by Taft, then the picture will be something like this: I. According to the place and degree of significance in the liturgical action: 1) sermons-comments on the Holy Scriptures (or, relatively speaking, a scriptural type of sermon); 2) eortological sermons (on a particular holiday fixed by the church calendar) 1444; II. Content: theological, socio-ethical sermons, etc. (see comments regarding Kurbatov’s scheme). And yet, when speaking about medieval preaching, I would like to first of all emphasize such features as the universality of the content - the preacher addresses everyone and talks about everything - and the completeness of coverage of various phenomena of natural, cosmic, social and supercosmic (“supernatural”) reality. In practice, a variety of topics are combined in one homily - from everyday to sublime. The many themes of the homily correspond to the multiplicity of stylistic registers used by the author 1445. The element of stylistic diversity to which attention will be drawn here is rhetorical formulas and clichés. Many of them were adopted by Palamas from the church tradition (homiletics, hymnography, etc.), some (for example, the image of the sea) - perhaps from the tradition of anti-crisis education. To understand the nature of many of these formulas, it is appropriate to use the concept of “memory of a genre” introduced by M. M. Bakhtin: most of them have acquired a kind of “beard of tradition.” The importance of studying - within the framework of historical research - rhetorical tropes and formulas is indicated (following A.N. Veselovsky) by such a prominent scientist as A. Ya. Gurevich 1447. Moreover, in each specific case it is important to reveal the motivation for using this or that trope. This is what the main part of the chapter is devoted to (§ 2). Its goal is to outline the problem and try to outline (using a limited number of examples) some ways to resolve it. A comprehensive history of Byzantine homiletics, which would make the subject of analysis both the theological and the actual literary side of the works under consideration, remains a matter for the future 1448. § 2. Identification and analysis of the main rhetorical formulas in homily: from the word to the Logos The language of Palamas' homilies has not yet been studied by anyone; in any case, the corresponding works are unknown to us. Meanwhile, of undoubted interest for a researcher of Byzantine literature are such elements of the figurative-conceptual construction and design of homilies as: 1) used by St. Gregory’s methods of typological exegesis of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, which show that in his interpretation of the prototypes of New Testament events, the Archbishop of Thessalonica adhered to the best traditions of Alexandrian theology. See, for example, the interpretation of Jonah as a type of Christ (493BC), and Herod as an image of all kinds of evil and wickedness, while “clever Herod” is a metonymic designation of the devil 1449; 2) some metaphors that would be more likely to be expected in the works of Byzantine humanists of that time (one example is the image of the sea and a ship sailing in it, beloved by Byzantine historians and writers) 1450; 3) mentions of the Messalians 1451, which makes it possible to correct the statement of A. Rigo that there are no such references in the works of Palamas 1452. In a word, the homilies are quite versatile in content, and a historian of almost any aspect of the social and spiritual life of late Byzantium can find in them material relevant to the range of his activities. In this paragraph we would like to try to show - using the example of an analysis of the rhetorical formulas used by Palamas - in what way, that is, through what figurative and expressive means of natural language and the author’s construction of speech (cf. the ideas of F. de Saussure) this informativeness is achieved. Research of this kind is not something unique in modern Byzantine studies. Among the works that are methodologically and substantively close to our topic, we should mention the experience of creating a general theory of the stylistic development of Byzantine high literature, owned by I. I. Shevchenko 1453, and the attempt to identify various styles in the collection of letters of Demetrius Kidonis, undertaken by F. Tinnefeld 1454. Of the domestic developments, the school of narratological analysis of works of the historiographic genre (Ya. N. Lyubarsky, I. V. Krivushin and their followers) 1455 attracts attention first of all. Valuable in terms of material and similar in the manner of analysis are the studies carried out in the structuralist spirit by Y. Alissandratos on the ancient Russian lives of saints 1456, E. V. Markasova - on one part of these lives: the prefaces 1457 - and many others. All these works are united by an understanding of the interpenetration of plans of expression and content in narrative sources with a complicated content structure, as well as an interest in the analysis of the elements of this structure. Specific terminological tools for this kind of analysis were developed in the works of philologists - Byzantinists, Russianists and Slavists of the last two or three generations (R. O. Yakobson, I. P. Eremin, V. N. Toporov, Yu. M. Lotman, M. B. Plyukhanova, L. I. Sazonova, T. V. Chertoritskaya, F. N. Dvinyatin, etc.) 1458. The concepts of rhetorical parallelism, binarity, stylistic symmetry used by these scientists, the identification and analysis in the structure of the text of binary oppositions and oppositions of other types, as well as such figures as homeotelevts 1459, polyptoton, anaphora, etc. are very important for a medievalist working with related genres of other medieval literatures. Let's try to highlight individual (at least relatively) stylistic features in the homiletical heritage of Palamas 1460. Using a limited number of examples, we will try to show how the Archbishop of Thessaloniki, starting from the tradition of apophatic and cataphatic speaking about God, in one or two strokes gives it new content, enriching it with new semantic facets. We have identified the following formulas and techniques for increasing the rhetorical organization of the text of homilies: - the formula of encomization (from ἐγκωμιάζω - I glorify) - a kind of hymn in prose. It is characterized by solemnity, decorativeness, skillful selection of epithets and carefully thought-out organization of the text and/or fragment of the text, so it would be more accurate to call it a technique; – a formula (or, again, a technique) of emphatization – or semantic highlighting and strengthening of an idea, focusing attention on a phenomenon or object; – a method of cataloging a large but visible set of similar phenomena described in the text (the main object of action of this method is passions and virtues in the human soul; see tables in Chapter 2); – intensification of binary oppositions (the technique is especially relevant when describing the life and soteriological path of a person, entirely woven from contradictions); – formula of explication – a clear and concise explanation of the semantic essence of a phenomenon or object that is known in advance (for example, the Resurrection of the Lord); - an aphorism formula - an apt and seemingly (but not essentially) unexpected characteristic of an object or phenomenon that is in the field of discussion; – organization of chains of epithets directly related to the principles of paradoxical apophatic-cataphatic thinking about God, which were developed by the Eastern Christian tradition over more than a millennium; – finally, the general stylistic and syntactic organization of the text (which we analyze using the example of the construction of some passages of the Sixth Homily). These types of formulas and techniques are not something absolutely delimited from each other, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish, say, an encomization formula from a simple emphatization. Therefore, the proposed classification is based on a number of tolerances and is largely conditional. The encomization formula (1) correlates primarily with the anthropological component of Palamas’ teaching, because God does not need special, additional glorification: God is described by combining apophatic and cataphatic epithets in one chain, which we will show with examples a little further. The twenty-sixth homily opens, one might say, with a programmatic statement: “Creator (ὁ... ποιητὴς) and Lord of all (τῶν ἁπάντων), who created everything (πάντα) from non-existence with goodness (ποιήσας), after all (μετὰ πάντα) - according to the abundance of His power, the unspeakable and unthinkable (ἄφατον καὶ ἀπερινόητον) the wonderful wealth of His wisdom and kindness (χρηστότητος), image (παραδόξως) created (ἀπειργάσατο) man, in one, and, moreover, small (ἓν καὶ βραχὺ) work [of His hands] (πλάσμα) gathering together and, as it were, leading ( συναθροίσας, καὶ οἷον συγκεφαλαιωσάμενος) all (τὴν ἅπασαν) creation )" (332C). Each element of this phrase acts as a meaning and carries a certain semantic load. The main idea - the central position of man in the created world - is not simply stated, but emphasized in every possible way thanks to the wealth of synonymous vocabulary of high and middle registers related to the act of creation. The highest register of this vocabulary is represented by the apophatic epithets ἄφατον and ἀπερινόητον, relating directly to the Creator (more precisely, to His forces or energies involved in the process of creation), and the adverb παραδόξως, which describes only one, the highest act of this process is the creation of man. Thus, the consciousness of the reader and listener is immediately led to the idea of ​​the similarity of these two main figures in the world-historical drama - God and man; that man, created by the special grace of God, “unspeakable and unthinkable,” is called to become like His Creator. The highest layer of “creative” vocabulary also includes ποιέω and ποιητὴς, which are directly related to the Creator. Further, in this phrase, words of the middle level are applied to a person - τὸ πλάσμα (literally - “that which is molded; creation, work”) and a verb with a “craft” connotation meaning ἀπεργάζομαι (“finish”, “process”); to the created world as a whole, a lower register word is attached (in the scale of terms related to “creativity” in the theological-cosmological sense) – ἡκτίαις (“creature”). Before us - immediately - is a scale of ontological and value levels of world existence, given already in the language of description: God - man (similar to Him already due to the special conditions of the act of creation, as well as in terms of tasks; see Chapter 2) - the rest of the created world (which in different senses can be called “cosmos”; see Chapter 1.2.1), In the same way, the elements of the text that we have highlighted in italics reinforce the impression of the universality of the coverage of the world process, which idea correlates with the idea of the unity of all participants in this process - and the apophatic epithets, highlighted in bold, focus the listener’s and reader’s attention on the understatement and mystery of what happened in the act of creation and now seems to be passing before his mind’s eye again (cf. not uncommon in homilies - for example, in the Sixth - the author’s calls to the audience to “open the eye of the soul”). Ultimately, this entire ensemble of many-sided elements, each of which has its own overtone, but all as a whole are built on the principle of polyphony, is intended to serve (among other things) the expression of one of the main ideas of Christian cosmology and ontology: the idea of the paradoxical (because arising from the paradoxical nature of creation itself) coexistence in the created world of unity and plurality - more precisely, unity achieved through the multiplicity of elements of created existence and in this multiplicity of self-realizing. Along with this, the text contains the idea of ​​achieving the final unity of the Creator and the creature thanks to the latter’s aspiration to the Creator and through likeness to Him. The central and leading role of man in this process is emphasized and specifically stated. Let us continue quoting this passage: “Therefore [the Lord] created (ἐδημιούργησε) his last, participating in both worlds (τῶν κόσμων ἀμφοτέρων) (cf. Chapter 1.2.1. – D. M.) and, in turn, decorating both worlds (καὶ ἀμψοτέρσυς ἐπικοσμοῦντα τοὺς κόσμους) (meaning No. 5 according to our scheme. – D. M.) – that is, visible and invisible...” (Ibid.). The involvement of rhetoric is increasing: if in the previous phrase the superiority of man over the world was emphasized, here their deep affinity with each other is indicated, and the act of creation - in accordance with the new turn of the topic - is indicated by another synonymous verb. In the short space of the text we already have four of them: ποιέω, πλάσσω, ἀπεργάζομαι, δημιουργέω; the fifth – κτίζω – is reconstructed from κτίσις in the previous phrase; it is very difficult to translate all this into any modern European or American language... This finely thought out and skillfully organized game of synonyms, cognate words and their derivatives is designed to enhance the feeling of the mystery of life, its brightness, “coloratura” and inexhaustible diversity, behind which stands - and through which one can see and can be seen with the spiritual eye - the infinite goodness of the Creator... And further this theme of affinity, closeness and similarity of the world and man develops according to ascending, reaching its climax in the following words and expressions: “... [God] created the same world (πεποίηκε) eternally at rest - and moving (ἑσατῶτα ἀεὶ καὶ κινούμενον). For man and the world (κόσμος) - insofar as [are] by the method of origin (τῷ τρόπῳ τῆς κατασκευῆς) [creations] of one Master (ἑνὸς τεχνίτου) - in many ways similar to each other (πολλὴν ἔχουσι... τὴν συγγένειαν), although they surpass each other: one - in dimension (τῷ μεγέθει), and the other by understanding (τῇ συνέσει)” (332D–333A). Here, two homeotelevts serve to rhetorically strengthen this idea, which increases the aesthetics of the created picture as a whole. The “coefficient,” if I may say so, of the rhetorical-stylistic finishing of the text increases sharply - so that the analyzed fragment ends with a completely jubilant chord: “And, being in the world, a person [in relation to the world] acts as a treasure [or: “is treasured by the world, co-existing (with it)”] 1461. Man is the crown of created existence (cf. similar ideas of all the Fathers of the Church, starting with the apostolic men and apologists) 1462. How else can this idea be expressed more clearly, more visually and more sublimely (cf., by the way, the Gospel parable about the pearl - and other sub-, or rather, invisibly present contexts. - D. M.) expression? In full accordance with the hesychast anthropology of the teacher of silence (the identity of the planes of expression and content!), the first and main locus in man, praised and glorified by Palamas, turns out to be the mind: “How much better (κρείττων) than heaven is the human mind (ὁ... νοῦς) (cf.: δυνάμει κρείττονος ἐνεργείας (428В) - an expression indicating the mysterious activity of the Holy Spirit; cf. and the hesychast doctrine of enlightenment - D. M.), which is the image (εἰκών) 1463 of God and knows (. οἶδε) God, and the only one of those existing in the world (τῶν ἐγκοσμίων), if he wishes, becomes [a god], taking with him the body of [our] humility!” (333A). Let us note the indication contained in these lines of the theoretical (in the sense of the mystical θεωρία) function of the mind, which, however, is conveyed through the Greek οἶδα (a verb dating back to the Indo-European root *ueid -uid- with a double meaning - “to know” and “to see”), as well as to the supposed (and readable - at least through comparison given in brackets) the assistance of God's grace in this process. So it becomes clear to the one who understands (sapienti, according to the saying) that we are talking about deification by grace, and not about any remnants of Origenist mysticism: the sound core of the latter by the time of St. Gregory Palamas was reliably incorporated into Church Tradition (suffice it to recall the definition of prayer by St. John Climacus and St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia). Let us also note the confirmation and affirmation of biblical anthropology, which includes the body in asceticism and new life. Finally, what is striking is how Palamas glorifies the role of feeling in the process of man’s cognition of the world and existential orientation (the corresponding fragment is quoted in extenso in Chapter 2): “How different human feeling is from the earth (superior to the earth, διηνήνοχε γῆς ...)!” (Ibid.). These words reveal the consciousness of that great truth about man, which will be fully revealed only to the chosen ones on the day of Resurrection. But this is also a statement of empirical truth: after all, it was man - thanks to the sensual component of his nature - who measured the seas and lands, reaching with his gaze even to the cosmic distances (cf. similar motives in Nemesius and other representatives of Eastern patristics)! The use of this component, according to Palamas, should be subordinated to the general task: the transformation of empirical existence, its transubstantiation into the Kingdom of God. Palamas' sermon (as a whole, and not just homilies No. 34 and 35) can be called a sermon on the Transfiguration. If the Archbishop of Thessalonica describes in such vivid colors the originally existing height of the spiritual nature of man, which today is present only in a few, then this is because he calls for this height, calls us to reach this height again and again. The height at which we, purified in heart and mind, can contemplate God... And then: “This vision (ἡ θέα) is the abolition of all sin (ἀναίρεσις), deliverance from all wickedness (καθαίρεσις), removal from all evil (ἀλλοτρίωσις). This vision is such that it creates every virtue (ὑπάρχειποιητικὴ), gives birth to purity and dispassion (γεννητικὴ), eternal life and the infinite Kingdom delivers (παρεκτική)" (304V). The semantics of the homeotelevts here is complemented by the isolation and isolation from each other of the nominal (chain of nouns in Nom. Sg.) and verbal (more precisely, verbal adjectives) chain, and this isolation clearly correlates with the distinction between two stages of the spiritual path of a Christian: overcoming passions at the first of them (expressed by a triad of similar nouns) is replaced by the acquisition of “all virtue... purity... and the Kingdom...", which is expressed by a set of verb forms, since it is the verb that acts as the most active and moving part of speech and correlates in this case with the idea of ​​the growth of the righteous in goodness in the Kingdom of God under the guidance of the Spirit of God (cf. the works of Gregory of Nyssa known to Palamas - “The Life of Moses” 1464, “Explanation of the Song of Songs”, etc.). Those who follow this path of growth in goodness await Paradise, which is described by Palamas as (we will quote just one example) “a day without evening (ἀνέσπερον), immortal life (ἀθάνατον), unsquanderable wealth (ἀδαπάνητον), bliss unclouded (ἀκηρατον), eternal glory (ἀΐδιον)... truly existing (τὰ ὄντως ὄντα) (a favorite term of the Platonists! - D. M.) and remaining unchanged ( ἀναλλοίωτα )" (264CD). Such a wealth of apophatic epithets, correlated with Paradise, is intended to remind a person that it is there, in heaven, that his real homeland is... This place is included in a broader set of apophatic descriptions of Paradise by Palamas and other church authors close to him (we will limit ourselves to the example of St. Gregory of Cyprus). In his glorification of the Light of Tabor, Palamas consciously relied on the tradition of exegesis and understanding of the Transfiguration, which we have already partially considered, as evidenced, for example, by David Disipate: “... having collected from the saints, the tree of writing about the divine light of the Transfiguration, and showing it from the words of the saints is divine, unapproachable, and flightless, uncreated, and ever-present, radiance and We call grace, and the lordship of God, and divinity from the saints...” 1465. Apparently, this passage from the Svyatogorsk Tomos is being retold (or interpreted) where Palamas says about the Tabor Light that the saints “... call it in their hymns and writings the ineffable light, uncreated, eternal, timeless, unapproachable, immeasurable, boundless, limitless, invisible to angels and men, original and unchangeable beauty, the glory of God, the glory Christ, the glory of the Spirit, the ray of the Divine and similar names" 1466. To demonstrate even more clearly the closeness of the image of Paradise created by the Archbishop of Thessaloniki to the patristic tradition of late Byzantium, let us turn to a fragment from a letter from St. Gregory of Cyprus to John, sebastocrator of Thessaly (c. 1282–1285): “There (ἔνθα) is an ever-lasting glory (διαιωνίζουσα εὔκλεια) 1467 - and illumination with rays surpassing the sun ( τὸ λάμπειν ὑπὲρ ἡλίου αὐγάς) 1468, there is eternal joy (θυμηδία ἀΐδιος) and angelic praises (τὰ... ἐγκώμια); there are the thrones of the apostles, the glory of the patriarchs (δόξα), the crowns of the martyrs, there is the destiny of all the righteous (κληρουχία) 1469, there is the ineffable vision of God (ἡ ἄρρητος θεοπτία) (characteristic article to this word! - D. M.) and deification by communion (κατὰ μέθεξιν θέωσις) 1470, and cohabitation with all the saints (ἡ... συναυλία), in a single monastery (option - “under one shelter“) coexistence (συσκηνία) (a word unknown to Palamas, one of the rare new formations. - D. M.) and sharing of irreducible benefits (rejoicing, τῶν τερπνῶν), and sharing with intelligent armies (ταῖς ... στρατιαῖς) chanting (τὸ ὑμνεῖν) of the incessant (ἀσίγητον) hymn of the Trisolar Divinity (τῇ τρισηλίῳ θεότητι) 1471 with a voice of unspeakable delight (ἐν φωνῇ ἀφράστου ἀγαλλιάσεως)" 1472. Analyzing this text, first of all we have to note its amazing closeness to the spirit of the theology of St. Gregory Palamas - that is, ultimately, to the Spirit who “blows wherever he wills,” reviving and inspiring the Church with His presence. Cypriots are characterized by the use of a refrain (ἔνθα), which focuses the attention of the addressee of the message on the main idea and thereby strengthens it, and the selective use of the article: it is placed when indicating eternal and indestructible heavenly realities that depend not on people, but exclusively on the Providence of God (although this explanation is incomplete and conditional). The text combines apophatic and cataphatic series of epithets, with the second almost predominant: it seems that for Cypriot it was especially significant to express this eschatological hope painted in major colors in visible images. The text is extremely fresh and new in ideas and style and bears the undoubted imprint of late Athos hesychast ideas, which were actively developing from the middle of the 13th century; the text after the line consists of a set of more traditional predicates and “pointed descriptions” of individual components of the Kingdom of God. Collected together, they form a surprisingly solid and (this word is symbolic in this context) brilliant mosaic, like the light streaming from Byzantine, Serbian, Russian icons of the late Palaeologian period 1473... Paradise and Palamas were described in approximately the same manner; we, therefore, are close to establishing the immediate antecedents of his way of thinking and style, since the teacher of silence in both cases continued the main line of church eloquence of his time, directly adjoining it. But not only man is glorified, not only the Paradise prepared for the righteous, but also creation as a whole. Individual images of Sacred History are sung, among which the most important spiritually and dogmatically, and the most highlighted rhetorically, are the Mother of God and St. Demetrius of Thessalonica (the epithets applied to the apostles Peter and Paul are more typical - and even typified). The veneration of the Mother of God was especially significant for Palamas, as Patriarch Philotheus notes in his Eulogy to the saint. According to Meyendorff, Saint Gregory Palamas was inspired by the “extremely realistic idea of ​​the Divine Motherhood” of 1474 - and this is why the Blessed Virgin is glorified by the saint as “most radiant of light” (φωτὸς φαιδροτέρα), more full of blossoms than the pastures of God 1475, the whole world - visible and invisible - most beautiful (κόσμου παντὸς... κοσμιωτέρα)" (469С). And in the Fourteenth Homily - on the Annunciation - the Virgin Mother (ἡ Παρθενομήτωρ) is described as “... the only border (μεθόριόν ἐστι) between created and uncreated nature... The cause of those [who were] before her and the Representative for those who [will be] after her, and the Giver of eternal [blessings] (τῶν αἰωνίων πρόξενος). She is the foundation of the prophets (ὑπόθεσις), the apostles the beginning, the martyrs the affirmation (ἑδραίωμα), the teachers the support (κρηπίς). She is the Glory (ἡδόξα) of [beings] on earth, Joy (rapture, ἡ τερπνότης) [of beings] in heaven, Decoration (τὸ...ἐγκαλλώπισμα) of all creation; She is the Firstfruits (καταρχή), the Source and Root of the hope prepared for us in heaven” (177AB). In this wealth of colors and epithets, the nominal style prevails, realized through the stringing of predicative constructions on top of each other (like Subst. in Nom. Sg. & Subst. in Gen. PI.), since the central image glorified in these words is not a person in general, but the Blessed Virgin, Who is the Firstfruits, Source and Root of our salvation 1476. The apostles are characterized as “lamps (λαμπάδας)..., or rather... lights (φωστῆρας) supermundane and universal (ὑπερκοσμίους καὶ παγκοσμίους) (the simplest case of polyptoton. - D.M.), emitting (giving, ἐπέχοντας) the word (λόγον) of eternal life. Through them [St. The Spirit] enlightened (ἐφώτισε) the whole universe” (316A). Naturally, the word - λόγος, preached by the Apostles, correlates with the Second Person of the Holy Trinity, and through the mention of the Holy Spirit - with the Holy Trinity as a whole (each action of which outside, as is known, is common to the three Hypostases) 1477. In a somewhat more “iconic” or even “iconic” style, with an emphasis on visual representation, St. Demetrius of Thessalonica (Hom. 43). How significant is at least the following selection of epithets: “... some firmly established in itself and indestructible stronghold (στήλη τις αὐθέδραστος καὶ ἀκαθαίρετος) of all good; animated and self-moving decoration (lit. - “statue”, ἄγαλμα) of any virtue, concentration and combination (lit. - “juxtaposition”, ἑστία καὶ συστοιχία) (homeotelevt. - D. M.) divine and human joys (χαρίτων), a living book and saying what [serves] for the glory and guidance (ὁδηγίαν) of the Best (synonym for the “Highest” - i.e. God, τοῦ κρείττονος); wonderful (lit. - “pleasant”, “gracious”, εὔχαρίτε) and wondrous dissolution (καινὸν κρᾶμα) of all goods (καλῶν), the universal and most useful treasure of all good things ( κοινὴ παντὸς ἀγαθοῦ καὶ κοινωφελεστάτη φιλοτιμία)..." (537Α). Here, the verbal icon of the righteous, festive in its spirit and mentality, is created by combining in several lines of text a group of superlative epithets with a group of words of the semantic field denoting “good” and “good,” as well as “joy.” Thus, even on the basis of these few examples, we could be convinced that the main object of glorification (encomization) in the homilies is man, like every person and all people (in their original, God-created essence), and - mainly - people who have marked themselves and their lives with the feat of asceticism and - thanks to this - the acquisition of holiness: the Apostles, saints - and, of course, the crown of all created things - the Mother of God. As an example of Palamas’ use of the technique of emphatization, or emphasizing (strengthening, sharpening) the meaning of an already known point of Christian teaching (the familiarity of the material characterized in it, this technique differs from the technique of encomization, despite their undoubted kinship), we cite a phrase from the final part of the Fifteenth Homily - on Palm Sunday: “For the sign (τὸ γὰρ σημεῖον) of our discipleship (τῆς... μαθητείας) with the Lord, as He Himself said, is love (John 13:34–35), and the paternal inheritance (ἡ... κληρονομία) that He left us ( ἀφῆκε), leaving this world, is love” (188B). Here the key words “ἡ ἀγάπη ἐστί” in both parts of the period are moved to the end, which serves for their better memorization and assimilation; this is also consistent with the general principles of the construction of a Greek phrase, so Palamas, trying to emphasize this position, fundamental in its significance for a Christian, follows the laws of language, its rhythm, its lexical data - and with this naturalness it makes a stronger, “lightning-fast” impression on listeners and readers. Everything breathes naturalness (and super-naturalness, but not unnaturalness) in his sermons; there is still a very long way to go before the new European mannerisms, constructivism, futurism and modernism with their characteristic desire to transform the available linguistic material. We can also point to the description of the unity of the world in 224B, which has already become the object of our consideration from the point of view of the history of ideas 1478. In general, the “range of action” of this technique is wider than the previous one and correlates with the horizon of the created world, with the sphere of createdness as such. When analyzing the cataloging technique, one can be brief. This technique is brought to life by the need for systematic organization and stylistically expressive presentation of large groups (lists, lists) of homogeneous material. Applies to the sphere of man and human activity in the world (see lists of vices in 417D–420A, as well as virtues in 105A, 112C, 164C, 180A and other places - according to tables (3) and 4), as well as to the sphere of divine-human relations. This refers to the famous detailed list (with explanations for each item) of the reasons for the Incarnation in the Sixteenth Homily (201D–204A; a total of 14 reasons, each of which corresponds to one (and sometimes two) target clauses included in a complex phrase. This makes the homily perhaps the most important treatise on the Incarnation in the patristic thought of the Palaeologian period and one of the most important doctrinal texts of the Eastern Christianity. The formula of binary opposition finds its most relevant application in the field of hamartology and soteriology, in which St. the father is inspired by the corresponding ideas of the Apostle Paul: they already contain that antinomianism, which will become one of the most noticeable characteristics of the subsequent tradition of Eastern Christian speculation 1479, “... this world is perishable,” says Palamas, “another endures forever. The contempt of this world serves as a reliable passage to that [world] for us” (261D). Therefore, “...the sons of God here are only those who despise human glory” (92C). “You see,” he asks in the Fourth Homily, dedicated to the theme of mercy, “how those who live according to Christ (οἱ κατὰ Χριστὸν ζῶντες) ... are filled with unspeakable joy and confidence (παῤῥησίας ) [in what awaits them], and those who live according to the flesh (οἱ δὲ κατὰ σάρκαζῶντες) - shame, pain and sorrow (bitterness, depression - κατηφείας)? (49C). Italics highlight two binary opposite groups of subjects, one of which denotes the righteous, who are destined for a place in Paradise, and the second - sinners living according to the laws of the Earthly City, with its sorrow and strife. The examples given relate to the current situation of human existence - so to speak, the status quo de la condition humaine. However, when resolving this topic and exiting (and subsequently leading listeners and readers) into the space of soteriological hope, mental contemplation of the ideal, Palamas also uses this formula. One should live, in his words, “exhausting and killing the outer man (τηκόμενοί τε καὶ ἀχρειούμενοι), and renewing and deifying the inner man ( ἀνανεούμενοι καὶ θεούμενοι )" (321A). The contrast between the two parts of the phrase, reinforced in each case by the anaphora of two participial forms and the homeotelevt, is almost complete and extremely clear. Naturally, we are not talking about any kind of fratricidal warfare, but about the existential reorientation of each person, which takes place in the soul and spirit and involves a transition from external to internal, a rejection of false and fleeting ones - and a transition to true values. This call in itself is one of the eternal themes of world literature, including moralistic and philosophical; “mieux vaut être qu’avoir” - one can recall this motto of Tsvetaeva (cf. also E. Fromm’s book “To Have or To Be?” - and the whole range of corresponding ideas in the 20th century) - and explain: to be is for the Christian tradition (including St. Gregory Palamas) and means to be with God, in this growth to a state of deification, step by step realizing one’s humanity. In other cases, using this formula, the means that make this implementation possible and achievable are indicated. From the many teachings of the teacher of silence, the following should be quoted: “By fasting and abstinence, the outer man (ὁ ἔξω ἄνθρωπος) is destroyed (φθείρεται) - and as much as he is destroyed, so, according to the Apostle, the inner (ὁ ἐντὸς ἀνακαινίζεται )" (105AV; cf. Rom. 6:5–11; 8:5–11; 1 Cor. 15:42–44, 48–49, 53; etc.). But, of course, the main thing here remains love: “...for, brothers,” Palamas addresses the parishioners, “just as love and deeds of love are the fullness of virtues (πλήρωμα τῶν ἀρετῶν), so hatred and deeds of hatred... are the fullness of sin (πλήρωμά ἐστι τῆς ἁμαρτίας )" (60D). Here, too, by skillfully juxtaposing the elements of identity (the predicate, the structure of the phrase as a whole) and difference (the antonymic nominal parts of both predicates) in the language, a transparent and convincing expression of the main idea is achieved in its weight. The approach advocated by the saint (as well as other Fathers) is based on the principle of activity. After all, “... faith without works is dead and illusory (ἀσύστατος), and works without faith are vain and useless...” (101C). Thus, here, too, the focus of the preacher’s attention is a person - not a person in general, but a struggling and restless, questioning and reflecting person of his era, a living face with all his weaknesses and shortcomings, and not a detachedly looking mask. Palamas uses oppositions to indicate the ultimate possibilities of the path in both directions - Light and darkness, leaving his listeners to make their own choices and thereby recognizing the gift of freedom for them. It is not difficult to see that this position follows organically from the general provisions of his theological anthropology. Once the object of application of this formula (and then in a partially “removed” form) turns out to be the world - the world as a universe, as an integral and harmonious multi-unity - or, in the words of Palamas, “a beautiful symphony composed of opposing elements” (Conversations... Part 3. P. 101; see Chapter 1). These opposites intersect in a person (cf. the teaching of St. Maximus the Confessor), who in his activity is called to remove them and thereby contribute to the realization of the highest ideal, that is, the coming of the Kingdom of God... According to Fr. Dumitru Staniloae, with whom one can only agree, “the world has only one meaning - as a field for dialogue between God and people” 1480. This perception of the universe as a field of divine-human action, so actualized in Russian (and French - if we recall Teilhard de Chardin and others) religious and philosophical thought at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, is close in spirit and genetically related to the anthropology and cosmology of St. Gregory Palamas. Several antinomies affect God - to the extent that He can be accessible (in terms of energy) and amenable to description by man. Starting from 1 Timothy 5:16, the works of St. Gregory of Nyssa and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, Palamas explains the Apostle’s thought as follows: “so the same thing here is light and darkness, which envelops [the Creator] in the shadow because of the abundant lightness [radiance] (τὸ αὐτὸ καὶ φῶς ἐστιν (441D) 1481. Another paradox is associated with the phenomenon of divine omnipresence in the world (in terms of energies) and inaccessibility (in essence). “He who exists before being and created being from non-existent with goodness,” says Palamas, “is in everything, although above all” (473D; the very beginning of the XXXVIII homily). From this, by the way, it follows that “... He was in the world even before His appearance in the flesh, but the world did not know Him, because they did not desire [it]” (Ibid.; cf. 1.2.1). Here antinomy acts as a means of discovering and demonstrating one of the deepest paradoxes of the Christian worldview and experience. Language follows thought along the path of apophatization, filling itself with the deep meanings and intuitions of the saint and at the same time contributing to a more flexible and effective, persuasive and inspiring transmission of these meanings. Finally, this formula is applied to the key moment of world history - the antagonism of God and the devil. It is noteworthy that the focus of the saint’s attention is again on the question of man: “And just as he,” says Palamas, “unjustly (ἀδίκως) desired (ἠράσθη) the destruction of God’s creation (τοῦ Θεοῦ πλάσματος), so the Creator (ὁ πλάσας) justly (ἐνδίκως) desired (ἠράσθη) the salvation of what [He] created (τοῦ πλαστουργήματος)” (189D) 1482. So, the current situation of human existence is tragic: however, the devil, in principle, has already been defeated, which opened the way to heaven for us; and this path is connected with the Incarnation, Death on the Cross and Ascension of the Savior. Further, in the Sixteenth Homily, this plot is considered, which is of paramount importance for soteriology (192A ff.). So, we could see that the formula of binary opposition is applied by the preacher primarily to man and various aspects of his life path, the main goal of which is salvation and knowledge of God. It is precisely because human existence is permeated with antinomies and paradoxes that this formula is so important in the stylistic design of the homilies of Gregory Palamas. Close in meaning to the formula of emphatization that we have already discussed (No. 2), the formula of explanation, or explication. This latter serves the preacher to clarify the meaning of a phenomenon or event that is not fully understood by the listener and/or reader. Through the application of this formula, the subject under consideration is opened up in new ways, so that certain aspects of it are brought into connection with other aspects of Christian tradition, practice and experience. We find a significant example of an explication formula at the beginning of the Eighteenth Homily, pronounced on the week of the Myrrh-Bearing Women: “The Lord’s Resurrection (ἀνάστασις) – the renewal of human nature (ἀνάνευσις) and the first Adam, because of sin was swallowed up by death, and because of death into the earth from which he was created (ἐπλάσθη), returned, revived (ἀνάζώωσις) and recreated (ἀνάπλασις), and returned to immortal life (ἐπανέλευσις)” (236B–237A). A number of nouns similar in meaning and sound to - σις, forming homeotelevts and thereby giving the phrase - at the level of expression - harmony and ornamentality; at the level of meaning, they express the idea of ​​renewal and resurrection (possible and expected) of believers to eternal life associated with the approaching Easter sacrament. This expectation of the Paschal sacrament agrees well with the mentality of the Church Fathers of the first centuries 1483. The definition of Easter itself, this Feast of Feasts and the Sacrament of Sacraments, is extremely important and capacious: “the transition of our nature in Christ from death to life, from corruption to incorruption” (276A). In other words, on this day that change takes place from the deified humanity of Christ into the spiritual and incorruptible, which is prepared for the righteous after the Last Judgment. In saying this, Palamas follows the most ancient Christian tradition, already reflected in the homily of St. Meliton of Sardis (2nd century): “...the mystery of Easter // took place in the body of the Lord” 1484; “This is the one who delivered us from slavery to... freedom, // from darkness to light, // from death to life... // ... // This is the Easter of our salvation” 1485. The Christocentrism of both authors, who are, respectively, at the origins and completion of the Byzantine tradition of Christian philosophy, is indicative; this serves as proof of the authenticity of their own views, but at the same time - the vitality of the tradition as such. It was exclusively for this purpose - to express this tradition in words as adequately as possible (and not for aesthetic play) that Palamas - without special reflection, but not without a sense of style as such - applied his formulas. This is their meaning. Of the aphorisms of Palamas, the following attract attention: “... the teaching of the Spirit is essentially light (φωτὸς γὰρ ἔχει λόγον)” (221A) - after all, God appears to the world as light, dwelling “in the unapproachable light” (1 Tim. 5:16). God is good, “...for He Himself also yearns (ποθεῖ) for those who yearn (τοὺς ποθοῦντας) for Him, as it is written” (252CD). Both aphorisms, as we see, are of a biblical nature. However, despite this closeness and longing of God for us, He remains essentially incomprehensible to us, for “... the Creator of our nature, God (δημιουργὸς Θεὸς) would not have been the Giver of salvation to us (ποιητικὸς), if he had appeared ( ὑπῆρχε) comprehensible (καταληπτὸς) for us” (517AV) - the last homeotelevt cannot be conveyed in translation. But this selection of consonances itself is noteworthy, motivated, presumably, not so much by the needs of rhetoric as by mnemonics - in order to consolidate the most important thing in the perception of listeners... and thanks to this, protect against the birth of new Eunomii (as Palamas, not without reason, called the followers of Barlaam and Akindinus) 1486. Using aphorisms, Palamas did an excellent job. As for epithets, the combination of cataphatic and apophatic façon de parler is characteristic when it comes to God. On the one hand, we encounter in the homilies a traditional set of apophatic definitions of God: “He is one God, one and the same, eternally [existing] before the ages, and in the ages, and now (still, ἔτι) abiding unchanged; beginningless, endless (lit. - “unceasing”), not arising, not collapsing, not increasing, not decreasing ( οὐκ ἀρχόμενος, οὐ παυόμενος, οὐ not changed in any way and in any place ( οὐδενὶ τρόπῳ ἢ τόπῳ μεταβαλλόμενος )" (288ΑΒ). This is the first series of homogeneous elements in the story of God. As we can see, the first part of the series is built according to the principle of homeotelevts, the second - according to the principle of consonance and skillful play on words (τρόπῳ ἢ τότζῳ). Nevertheless, in translation these features of the text turn out to be omitted: in accordance with the general attitude and logic of the author, it is much more important to convey the meaning of the text, and not just its sound form. What is important to us in the text of homilies is what is said, and only to a much lesser extent how it is said: the plane of content dominates the plane of expression, and it is precisely because of this that it becomes possible to say that this text is characterized by indirect artistry. The religious-ideological dominant and the meaning-transmitting function of the text determined by it determine the “involvement” of other functions in its construction, directing them along with it. Let's continue quoting. Following those considered are several epithets that are more familiar to such a genre of texts as homilies. They are also written in an apophatic vein, the linguistic indicator of which is α privativum, common to all Greek Confessions of Faith. Our God, in the words of the saint, is “...beginningless, uncreated, unchangeable (immutable, ἄτρεπτος), unmerged [with anything] (ἀσύγχυτος), unlimited (ἀπεριόριστος)...” (Ibid. B). Such a stringing of negative definitions on top of each other, a kind of “tuple” of them, we repeat, is characteristic of the Greek-speaking Confessions of Faith (and not only Orthodox ones). As an example devoid of banality, let us cite (in excerpts) a series of definitions of God given in Akindinus’s “Confession of Faith”: “... ἁπλήν, ἀδιαίρετον, ἀπερίγραπτον, ἄπειρον, ἄτρεπτον..." 1487 – the list continues, including a total of 24 definitions of the same type. But such apophatics in the church tradition is immediately complemented by cataphatics, without turning into a kind of “herbarium” of abstract concepts and philosophies, incompatible with the biblical teaching about the living God. For Akindinus, this cascade of privative, i.e., inherently negative definitions serves as a means of emasculating all living knowledge about God; in the theology of the Anti-Palamites, that supra-logical, but logically understandable and perceptible balance of the paradox of hiddenness - and the mystery of Revelation, which makes Orthodox theology truly mystical and on both sides of which lies the danger of a real slide into heresy (whether it be Eunomian positivism or dry and lifeless essentialism, which - and this also lies one of the paradoxes of spiritual history! - turn out to be surprisingly close) is violated in the theology of the Anti-Palamites each other, since both utterly devastate the truly Christian concept of God). Let's return to Palamas. A number of apophatic definitions are supplemented by cataphatic ones, among which the first place is occupied by light images (see Chapters 2.7 and 2.8). God for the saint is “the non-evening Light (ἀνέσπερον), true and eternal (ἀΐδιον), in which the souls of the righteous now abide, and then (after the Last Judgment; see Chapter 2.7. - D. M.) the saints will abide [there] with their bodies (μετὰ σώματος )....” (348D). “This light,” we read in another place, “is the existing (ὑπάρχον, cf. R.K. τὸφῶς. - D.M.) sun of universal (τῆς καθόλου) truth (δικαιοσύνης ), chastity, peace, compassion, long-suffering, love and in general of all virtues, makes partakers (μετόχους) of those who remain faithful to Him (stick to Him, τοὺς αὐτῷ προσανέχοντας)” (384B). Next - according to the principle of contrast, expressed through binary opposition - there is a description of “the darkness opposite [to This]... the darkness of vice (τὸ δὲ ἀντίθετον σκότος, σκότος κακίας)” – and her actions (Ibid.). The victory of good is affirmed by the entire structure of speech, and this is precisely its meaning and purpose. Palamas does not gloss over the problem, trying to show that evil is ephemeral, as many before him did (St. Gregory of Nyssa, the Areopagitists...) - on the contrary, with his sense of the reality of evil, its inhumanity and destructive power, he is much closer to our time. But the main idea of ​​the teacher of silence is expressed very clearly; precisely because the evil in the world is strong, it is necessary to make an opposite - and also powerful - effort in order to be saved from the abyss of vice. An ordinary Byzantine of the 1350s, if he was among the parishioners of the Thessalonica Church of St. Sophia, could hear this call to resist evil and acquire virtue expressed not only in the Six Psalms, but also in inspired by similar biblical imagery and skillfully placing emphasis on the main thing in the sermon of St. Gregory. The main rhetorical questions that the teacher of silence asks his listeners so as to evoke in their minds a ready-made and only self-evident answer are already familiar to us from the first chapters. They are constructed in such a way that they deliberately focus attention on the paradoxes of human existence: “How are we different from ants? Isn’t our mixture (τὸ... φύραμα), that is, the body, composed of the same [elements]? Aren't we eating the same? Don’t we live in the same [places] (διαζῶμεν)?” (516D). Calling for humility, the Archbishop of Thessaloniki again and again makes us think about the contradictory nature of man’s existential situation - and, having experienced catharsis at the level of feeling and thought, strive “in deed, word and thought” towards the cherished goal: cleansing from passions. “Shall we not cleanse the eye (τὸν... ὅφθαλμὸν) of the soul,” asks St. Gregory, - abstaining from all defilement of the flesh and spirit in order to see this Light above the sun (τὸν πρὸ ἡλίου φωστῆρα), and even - moreover - to become children ( τέκνα) of this Light and other lights ( φωστῆρες) – by participle (κατὰ μέθεξιν)...)” (296A). In both questions, the borderline situations of human existence (truly “dirt and stars”) are outlined - while relentlessly pursuing the ultimate goal: to preach the reality of deification. Convince listeners so that they themselves rush “to the mountain... to the mountain... to the Light.” And now it depends on ourselves whether the path we travel will become truly luminous. Metaphors - with the exception of the expressions “Light of Life”, “Sun of Truth”, etc., which are stable in the church tradition, which, strictly speaking, are not metaphors, being the most real reflection of what is comprehended in spiritual experience - Palamas rarely uses, and precisely because of the realism of the initial setting. Is it possible to consider a metaphor also not a new image that enjoys well-deserved respect among the Fathers: “For each of us (“quantifier of universality”! - D. M.) should only desire to knock on [the door] leading to salvation (ἐθελῆσαι... ἅψασθαι τῆς πρὸς σωτηρίαν φερούσης; the Latin translation specifies: pulsare ad portarti...), how the Guide (ὁκαθηγητὴς) will appear, prepared by the universal Savior... The Comforter existing in Himself ( αὐτοπαράκλητος )" (360A). We are talking, as we see, about the Holy Spirit. Indeed, a little further Palamas speaks of “the trinity of confession (τοῦ τριττοῦ τῆς ὁμολογίας)” and of the three categories (τάξεις) of those being saved—slavery, mercenary and sonship ( δουλείαν, μισθαρνίαν, υἱότητα)" (Ibid. B). The last idea is important for the systematic reconstruction of the saint’s eschatology, which finds confirmation and further development among his followers - in particular, Callistus Angelicuda (see Chapter 2. 6-7). As for the image of a door being knocked on, which is not fully stated in Palamas’ text (and the polysemantic verb ἅψασθαι, generally speaking, can be understood in another way - as a simple indication of contact with one or another object and coming into contact with it), then it is precisely with its banality and everyday prosaicity that the picture sketched by the saint makes us believe in the reality of salvation. The theme of the deification of man and his subsequent glorification by God is also connected with Palamas’s use of the traditional Christian symbolism of flowers: white and gold for the saint signify holiness - which is clearly manifested in icons and in church decoration (as well as in book design, miniatures, etc.), “... then He (God. - D. M.), - the saint describes the bliss of the righteous in Paradise, - having turned to us, he will cleanse us from all sin and, having made us white as snow (cf. Rev. 20:11) and revealing us as brighter than gold (cf. Rev. 21:18, 23; 22:5), will glorify us with Him now and to endless ages” (Conversations... Part 3. P. 237). In connection with Palamas's use of various types of narrative organization techniques and means of enhancing expressiveness in particularly semantically and stylistically marked fragments of the text, the problem of the overall organization of the text arises. We deliberately bring it to the end of our consideration, because, in our deep conviction, this problem deserves special - and the closest - attention in the light of the latest achievements in text linguistics, as well as general trends in the development of world scientific and humanitarian thought. Particularly significant to us seem to be the strikingly deep ideas and piercing observations on the relationship and interrelationship of space and text, as well as on the causes and principles of the relationship of these phenomena, in the study of the same name by V. N. Toporov 1488. It seems to us that the approach developed by the scientist, which transfers the study of the relationship between space and text from narrowly speculative to hermeneutic and ontological tracks - an approach that is deeply dialectical in nature, opens up new prospects for the community of humanities. One small study, chosen by us as an example, will complete the concrete analytical part of this chapter. It is devoted to the analysis of that place in the Sixth Homily of Palamas, where the rhetorical organization and processing of the text especially, so to speak, “comes to the surface” (i.e., the “rhetorical finishing coefficient” of both parts of a given text, that is, a given homily, and the text as a whole increases - in their correlation and interrelation). “Writing techniques” are, as it were, laid bare by the author, and therefore it is most convenient to explore them in this example. The corresponding fragment is about the creation of man (cf. the beginning of this paragraph). Applying, in fact, in his story about creation the formula of encomization, which presupposes the separation of man from the created world and his special position in this world, Palamas constructs this story itself in such a way that man finds himself in a state of double – spatial-existential and textual – separation: “Οὕτω δὴ πρῶτον τι τῶν ὄντων ἐν τῇ κτίσει παρήχθη, καὶ μετὰ τὸ πρῶτον ἕτερον... καὶ μετὰ πάντα ὁ ἄνθρωπος..." (81Β). Palamas immediately attunes the consciousness of those who perceive his speech to understanding and comprehending our own sublimity - from which follows the logically and stylistically emphasized greatness and volume of the tasks that we are called upon to solve. The use of homogeneous grammatical structures as part of the further development of the theme of man - the five turns of Accusativus cum infinitivo - emphasizes the scale of God's gifts to people (this is, perhaps, in the context under consideration the impact of the infinitive form - it elevates the action, transferring it to the sphere of higher, unearthly realities, from time to Eternity of a one-time stay), the unlimited generosity of the Creator in relation to creation: “... ὡς καὶ τὸν αἰσθητὸν τοῦτον κόσμον πρὸ αὐτοῦ γενέσθαι δι’ αὐτὸν..." (cf. spatio-temporal and semantic correlation of pronominal groups, emphasizing the significance of a person. πρὸ αὐτοῦ (how much stronger is the stylistic effect of the repetition of this group, placed at the end of two successively replacing substructures of the text and indicating the final goal of this act of creation! - D. M.) (2), καὶ βουλὴν περὶ αὐτοῦ προηγήσασθαι (cf. the spatial meaning of the preposition περὶ – “around, around” – and its textual surrounding by an accusative-infinitive group. – D.M.) (3), καὶ χειρὶ θεοῦ κατ’ εἰκόνα πλασθή ναιθεοῦ (4), καὶ μή τὸ πᾶν [αὐτὸν] καθάπερ τὰ ἄλλα τῶν ζώων, ἀλλὰ τὸ σῶμα μόνον, τὴν δὲ ψυχν ἐκ ? " 1489 (Ibid.). The phrase continues further - and in such a way that the increase in semantic tension goes from a group of words denoting “by the hand of God” to a similar group “in the image of God” (4), which is clearly shown by the structure of the text as an increase in divine involvement in creation, the intensity of Divine creativity during the transition to the creation of the highest degree of creatureliness. When the greatness of the image, associated with the divine origin of the soul, is directly described, the “feast of rhetoric” and the wealth of colors it exudes seems to know no limits at all: the use of apophatic (ἀποῤῥήτου) and excellent (θαυμαστὸν) epithets, emphasizing the superiority of man, serving to confirm and the visual embodiment of the idea that it was he - the last of all - who was created in the image of God, reach their apogee here. At the same time, the omission of the pronoun “αὐτὸν” implied here by the context (these details are, if possible, reflected in our translation) shows, in addition to purely linguistic economy (after all, it is already clear who we are talking about), Palamas’ humility before Eternity, his inherent consciousness of human insignificance in the face of the Creator. Here, as in a number of cases, the worldview of Palamas and the text generated by him paradoxically combine the author’s characteristic tendency to glorify man - and Christian humility and humiliation, the consciousness of the insignificance and futility of one’s strength before the face of God. The interweaving of all these meanings and meanings expressed in a word determines the polyphonically complex and super-saturated (but not losing harmony even in this saturation) structure of Palamas’ text. We have analyzed this fragment in such detail in order to dwell on the subsequent ones as briefly as possible. This passage is the climactic flash and peak of rhetorical tension in Palamas' Sixth Homily. Although the homily, in essence, opens and ends with rhetorically marked formulas, the nature of these formulas is different; they can be called explicative, or explication formulas (type 5 according to our classification), since they aphoristically clearly, as if illuminating the darkness of misunderstanding and/or bewilderment with a bright flash of an image, explain a complex and, as a rule, inexplicable phenomenon in the usual system of semantic coordinates. Taking into account what has been said, let us read in more detail the first phrase of the homily: “The spiritual and incipiently evil serpent is very sophisticated in evil and extremely resourceful, or better [to say] extremely malicious (Πολύς ἐστιν εἰς κακίαν εὐμήχανός τε καὶ πολντροπότατος, μᾶλλον δὲ παμμήχανος ὁ νοητὸς καὶ ἀρχέκακος ὄφις )" (76C). The game with identical semantic units is striking - εὐμήχανός τε and παμμήχανος, εἰς κακίαν and ἀρχέκακος, which are located in the structure of the phrase in such a way that the reader is not leaves a feeling of extremely intense monstrosity of what is depicted and an equally sharp rejection of what is described further. The clarifying group εἰς κακίαν is placed at the beginning of the sentence to make it immediately clear what is being said, and from the first words to set the perception of the listener and reader in the proper way. At the end of the sermon, calling listeners to fasting and repentance, Palamas again uses the technique of explication to explain one of the basic laws of spiritual life: “For without a contrite heart, truly, it is impossible to achieve repentance (ἄνευ γὰρ συντετριμμένης καρδίας οὐκ ἔστιν ἀληθῶς ἐπιλαβέσθαι τῆς μετανοίας )” (85D). But although the phrase is written in a negative vein, the reader (and listener) cannot leave the feeling that what the preacher requires can be achieved; what is apparently a denial turns out to be, rather, a hidden affirmation - an apology for the possibility and necessity of the Christian way of life. Thus, rhetoric achieves its main goal: again and again to excite and awaken people’s hearts (or, in the poet’s brilliant words, to burn “the hearts of people” with a “verb”) - so that they do not stop there; so that, resting on their laurels, unnoticeably for themselves, they would not become entangled in the visible and invisible nets that the prince of this world weaves - but, again and again, thinking about the main thing: about the path of Christian life, about this very life in God and with God, tirelessly following the commandments given from above and unfeignedly questioning their conscience, with their “works and days” they prepared and brought closer to themselves the coming salvation. In Palamas's sermons, rhetoric also celebrates a number of other, perhaps smaller, but no less significant successes. These include (if we continue the analysis of the same Sixth Homily) the parable of the ointment and the vessel (77CD), as well as the traditional Christian literature comparison of agricultural labor with spiritual deeds (76D–77A), reminiscent in structure of similar comparisons of Chrysostom - especially if we take into account the fact that both authors in their sermons interpreted the same Gospel parable of the sower 1490. But it seems that what has been said (and by saying we have in no way exhausted the richness of the semantic potential of the homilies and the variety of ways used by the teacher of silence to translate it into words) is enough to show the thoughtfulness, meaningfulness and rhetorical-stylistic richness of both individual parts of Palamas’ text and the text as a whole - as a set of meanings and signs that carry and express these meanings. Every feature and every touch, right down to the peculiarities of the use of the article and the conjunction καὶ, carries its own special meaning. Therefore, the world of Palamas is a holistic and meaningful world, enlightened by the rays of the Logos shining in it. In conclusion, a few general and as brief remarks as possible. The crowdedness and diversity of faces standing in front of St. Gregory Palamas as the archbishop of the city crowd determined the diversity of the themes of his sermon, as well as the multidimensionality of the rhetorical and stylistic techniques he used to semantically fill the text (and oral speech, such as repetitions), enhancing the expressiveness of words, phrases and phrases due to the accumulation of their original meaning. This diversity is based on unity, which unity by its very nature cannot but be dialectical, that is, allowing the same element to enter into different series of meaning-forming structures (from the level of the word to the level of the paragraph and the sermon as a whole). Thus, in the example we examined from the Sixth Homily, the description of the emergence of man appeals both to the idea of ​​his existential sublimity (and we have seen in what various ways Palamas expresses this idea) and to the tragedy of his current situation. There is no contradiction here, since one meaning does not destroy the other, but both of them are “reconciled” in the idea-“archiseme” of the path, following which removes the contrast between the given and the given, life and death, slavery and freedom - the Christian path of following the risen Lord and imitating Him. Filled with dangers, this path - thanks to help from above - can be crowned with salvation, if only we make every effort to do so 1491. This idea is consistently pursued and revealed from all angles of consideration and from different angles: thus, in the “cosmological” fragments of the homilies, the saint calls (in accordance with patristics) to know God through the splendor of the earth and heaven; in the anthropological ones - which make up the quantitative and qualitative majority - to be cleansed of passions and to see God not only in the external world, but also inside one’s own soul, which already here thereby acquires heavenly bliss; when he talks about the state of public affairs, he shows how passions (hatred, envy, discord...) spill out into the street - and how much kindness and love must be applied to end the chaos. Social chaos is unambiguously understood as a visible reflection of mental troubles, their projection and growth. Such a variety of tasks ensures the intensive involvement of rhetorical skill in the process of solving them, and at the same time explains this process itself. That is why we should not be surprised that we do not find in Palamas an absolutely established and predetermined system of rhetorical formulas: all the colors of his rhetorical palette are open to mutual transition. Their only goal is to help the birth of the meaning-logos leading to the Logos. We can say that rhetoric with its derivatives (i.e., specific techniques and figures) does not serve for Palamas as some predetermined and therefore frozen model or form into which words—the building blocks of meaning—are “framed.” Rather, it is used occasionally (if we talk about specially marked places - like those that were highlighted and analyzed in this chapter), subordinate to a higher goal: to convey to listeners (and later to readers) the good news about the possible and accessible salvation and deification for everyone; to tell - to the best of my ability - about the infinitely good and close God, and about Sacred history, and about His sacrificial love for man... For this - and only for this - the preacher (everyone, not just Palamas) is ready to “decorate words”, turning the minds of those listening to the invisible beauty of the spiritual world with the beauty of the audible and/or visible. We will be grateful to him for this. For too long, Byzantine rhetoric was reproached for its supposedly inherent deconcretization and lack of content, and Byzantine homiletics remained in almost complete oblivion on the far periphery of Russian historical research and experience, so that now - “after the storm” - we would not try to see in it the wealth of information and mental, thought-noematic and stylistic, the persuasiveness of concepts and the insight of individual statements, which determines the penetration of the text as a whole - and, as a result, the spiritual and semantic unity of the picture of the world expressed in homiletics monuments. Palamas was not only its deepener at the level of dogma, thought, close analysis of the social, spiritual, natural cosmos, but also a sensitive exponent in words. Through His lips the era speaks to us - in its fears and aspirations, hopes and sorrows, confusion - and hope... The most representative in this regard are the homilies of St. Gregory. Essentially, for its time it is a compendium of Christian thought expressed in images and concepts. It is our task to approach a holistic and multifaceted understanding of homilies, to understand the unity of the words and spirit that comprise them. The analysis carried out is nothing more than one of the first steps towards understanding the deep meanings that are hidden in the homily. These meanings are still waiting for their interpreter. They rise up as a task for us. During the course of our research, we were presented with various themes, images and plots refracted in the homilies of St. Gregory Palamas, forming their ideological, semantic, meaningful and artistic fabric. Now we have the right to ask the question: was there something unified behind all this abundance of material - ideals, aspirations, attitudes that determined Palamas’s thought as a whole? How does the wealth of ideas, exhortations, observations, intentions of consciousness and thinking that we saw in the homilies correlate with the spiritual and socio-political situation of the time that gave birth to this monument? Are these phenomena connected by a living and immediate thread, is there a gap between them? It seems that there is such a unifying principle, and it is connected precisely with the theme of man, his presence and actions in this world. I would like to believe that in the light of what we have said, the latter assumption would be unlawful. Homilies with all their content are addressed to man - to a huge mass of people (in the long term - to everyone) with their troubles and worries, poverty and misery, troubles and adversity... Therefore, in them with exceptional completeness and comprehensiveness - as, perhaps, in no other treatise of the saint - his critical remarks and observations, fears and warnings, his pain and anxiety were reflected - and at the same time, pride in man and in what was given to him by the Creator greatness. Reliance on a person’s soul, his conscience and reason, the glorification of his exalted position in the world, spiritual wealth and beauty go hand in hand in the texts we have examined with a warning about the responsibility that he must bear for his actions and deeds, forming a multi-level and harmonious “megatext” 1492. It is no secret that the question of man is central to humanism. In our opinion, it is humanism, the “anthropic context” and the associated concentration on the positive and negative aspects of the relationship between the main participants in the historical drama - God and man - that represents the main thing in homilies, their richest in terms of meaning, axiologically highlighted and marked layer. A sense of history, the historical, as well as a sense of world integrity, coherence, and harmony make Palamas in common with the largest representatives of Western and Eastern Christianity - with the Christian tradition as a whole. Hence the call of the saint, which also finds confirmation in the experience of tradition - since there is harmony, since it is not only given (for example, in the form of the harmony of the cosmos), but also given, then a person must perform a feat, surpass himself and - with the help of God - overcome his sinfulness, so that this harmony can be realized in history. All this: an appeal to history, a call to fulfill one’s duty and perform a feat on the scale of everyday life - represents a certain innovation of the teacher of silence: perhaps, since the time of St. Photius, the general public, represented by ordinary layers of the population of the city and countryside, did not have the opportunity to become acquainted with this kind of compendium of Christian thought of his era - thought expressed in the spoken word, and therefore accessible to everyone. Palamas' homilies remind everyone who comes across them of the magnitude of human vocation and the responsibility that comes with it - and at the same time bring a sense of consolation. And if emphasizing the harmony of the cosmos in itself still smacks of ancient rationalism, then the dialectical combination of harmony with history, the given with the given, structure with the process (cf. at least the deep and dialectical analysis of the passionate process) is more fresh and new. It flows from biblical theology, supplemented by the personal spiritual and prayer experience of the preacher, as well as the doctrinal, liturgical and hymnographic Tradition of the Church, and correlates with the rapidity of the era itself. That “Palamite synthesis” that Vl. spoke about at one time. Lossky,” took place, and it is in the homilies of the teacher of silence that we find, perhaps, the most suitable key for an in-depth understanding of this phenomenon. The Palamite synthesis (let's keep this name) was not just the completion of the previous Byzantine thought about man, but also (I think we were able to show this) bringing it to new frontiers of anthropological, theological, “social science” and cosmological knowledge and thinking; fixation and explanation of the new truth about the world, society and man within the framework of expanding and deepening the traditional holistic and multi-level picture of the world for Byzantine Orthodoxy as a creation of God, society and the cosmos. It would not be an exaggeration to say that it was Palamas who was the central exponent of his era in word and thought, that in his homilies, as a focus, the most important problems of the spiritual history of the Empire of his time were concentrated, carefully examined and resolved; Here it is necessary to urgently emphasize not the scientific and not only the private, but the social (socio-historical) significance of his words and deeds. What St. Gregory calls the flock - fulfilled by himself, and his personality (as it is revealed to us in his works and the testimonies of his contemporaries about him) was for the huge mass of believers the best illustration of what he said. From here follows the following conclusion - nothing in this world is superfluous or accidental, and the transformation and aspiration to the divine light that Palamas preaches is a holistic and comprehensive transformation - not only of the soul, but also of the body; not only by the transformation of one individual person, but also - in perspective and in the ideal, which in this case is the perspective - the enlightenment of the social, political, state whole. It is a call addressed to each of us: monks, laity, archons and their subordinates... The sermon is universal in thematic scope and in the number of addressees - real and potential, because the laws of salvation that the saint tries to reveal to them are universal. But this is not only a call, but also “extending a helping hand” by indicating a way out of a difficult (and even crisis) situation; an explanation of the need for works of love and reconciliation, redistribution of improperly (even if only improperly!) acquired wealth and asceticism, understood as a person’s response to an appeal to him from above and as a path to life with God and in God. Those who have followed this path to the end and are worthy to see the light of God in a real (and not symbolic, for then the entire economy of our salvation is illusory) way achieves the future (but prepared by the entire course of real life) transfiguration. At the same time, the deification of man is accomplished through communion with the energy of God, which is inextricably linked with the transcendental essence of God and brings with it immortality and eternal life. This transformation in no way implies a departure from history 1493 and must be achieved in the historical sphere: both through obedience and asceticism, which in the socio-political sphere manifests itself in the form of proper subordination and subordination of some individuals to others (for example, the people and archons - the Church), and through reconciliation and the establishment of civil, socio-psychological and political peace, which is achieved - not least - through mercy. Acting as an expert on the human soul and the sensual and spiritual warfare taking place within it, Palamas shows in his homilies how destructive this warfare turns out to be when it spills out beyond the narrow confines of one individual soul, darkening the wider layers of the social whole. This is possible within the framework of the organic theory of society, understanding it as a living and integral organism, which understanding was already expressed by the Apostle Paul (1 Cor. 12) and for centuries remained the standard for Byzantine theologians. But this means that, since society is united, the pain of one is echoed by the pain of everyone, and in Palamas’s speech this common pain seems to appear. In the anthropology of St. Gregory, with its hesychast background and dominant, contains a hesychast call for believers to become like spiritually, mentally and physically – in nature and in their deeds – the Risen and Shining Christ, finding in vision the Kingdom of God, which “...is within you,” according to the Gospel word. This call is nothing more than a concentrated expression of Christianity's fundamental call to its followers: to become conformed to Christ. The inclusion of Palamas’s ideas in the broader context of patristic thought allows us to better understand both the traditional nature of these ideas, their rootedness in the Holy Scriptures and Tradition of the Orthodox Church, and the “degree of novelty” contained in them. The latter makes itself felt at least in the fact that for the first time in one and relatively narrow group of works of one Father of the Church, hesychast mysticism, previously available in a condensed presentation (I mean “The Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention”, as well as the works of St. Nikephoros and the earlier Fathers), was presented in detail - step by step - as a holistic and comprehensive teaching about the spiritual path of a Christian (not just a monk), included in the framework of general anthropology. The latter, in both its aspects (static - the doctrine of the image and likeness of God in man - and dynamic - the doctrine of the Fall, its consequences and overcoming them) also achieves in Palamas' homily the greatest detail, as well as the highest degree of "phenomenal"-descriptive (classification of passions and virtues) and semantic elaboration and nuance. Palamas gave people and the Church what they expected from him: an adequate and holistic expression of Christianity, its anthropological, cosmological and “social science” truth, which very soon (already during his lifetime - by the Councils of 1341, 1347 and especially 1351, and then at the Council of Constantinople in 1368, which approved and proclaimed the canonization of the saint) was recognized as adequate expression, continuation and development of the spiritual and doctrinal tradition of the Orthodox Church. From now on it became clear that anyone who dared to oppose this teaching would be forced to go against the Church 1494. The last path was implemented by the anti-Palamites. What would it lead to if they were in power? It is difficult to say, but the final outcome and, what is especially important, the outcome of the historical existence of Byzantium could hardly have been more positive. It is unlikely that it would have been qualitatively different - especially since “...our own Platos // and the quick-witted Newtons” 1495 did not give rise to the emerging humanistic stratum, oriented towards the aristocracy of traditional forms of culture, and, moreover, an elitist culture. Apparently, she was not capable of giving birth to them. Meanwhile, history (to paraphrase Yu. M. Lotman) does not like repetitions (if they are not made at a new semantic level - a breakthrough into another plane of noumenal being, to those meanings that were unknown and inaccessible to the original exponents of similar ideas). She loves new, sometimes difficult to predict roads. This pathos of spiritual renewal - renewal of the personal, social and cosmic whole - is close and understandable to St. Gregory Palamas and should be understood as a practical conclusion from his teaching. Of course, not everything in his ideas was fresh and original. This is especially true for those of them that were the fruit of reflection on the structure of society and the ways of its further development. Many elements of social criticism unite the Archbishop of Thessaloniki with other intellectuals of his era. Thus, criticism of usury makes him similar to Nicholas Cabasilas; the demand for the redistribution of land (which can well be understood - from a democratic position - as a practical conclusion from what Palamas said) is contained in the “Dialogue of the Rich and the Poor” by Alexei Makremvolit, the doctrine of the redistribution of wealth is in Thomas Master, criticism of the licentiousness of the clergy permeates the letters and epistles of Athanasius I, and the call for reconciliation and mercy is a gospel topic, fully developed Chrysostom. And yet, one feels that for Palamas this is not just a topic and not just a template, since, developing the same doctrine of mercy, he explains it with quite new and, in any case, considerations more closely related to the realities of medieval life - for example, the doctrine of land as the common property of the productive strata of society (it should be emphasized that such an idea was not typical for the slave era). Some elements of Palamas’ views (in particular, the doctrine of money as a universal equivalent and the theory of the symphony of powers outlined in just a few lines) are more recent and in tune with the profile of his era, reflecting the complexities of its social, political and economic appearance, as well as the constant search by intellectuals of the Paleologian period for ways out of the current situation, a close and sober analysis of the most pressing social problems. Based on the characteristics of these views, which can be deepened and expanded, we would suggest that Palamas - in terms of the peculiarities of his thinking and worldview - is an intermediate and, perhaps, a connecting link between those who are usually called humanists (in the third sense of the word) and broad layers of the common people 1496, while in terms of the social position he occupies, he is much closer to the latter. His homilies are interesting because in them he, standing above everyone and not connecting his practical interests with any specific group of people (not counting the Church), tries to get closer - and not unsuccessfully - both in his analyzes and in his exhortations to the point of view and position of the common man, to his sorrows and sorrows, to the torments and doubts that gripped him - and through penetration into the problematics (in perspective) of each individual soul to show the way out to the era in in general: the transformation of man, his relationship with God and human relationships (interpersonal - at the level of an elementary quarrel - and group, including economic and political), and after this - the resolution of large-scale socio-political, economic, financial and other difficulties. Of course, these kinds of measures and calls are incomplete, but, firstly, as we know, no one proposed or implemented “complete” measures (and was it even possible?); secondly, it is this deep human level of appeal and exhortation, thought and motivation, shifts and changes that is the basis and platform on which social and political transformations are then superimposed. In general, in the field of cosmology, Palama gave a systematically holistic and interconnected picture of the world as a cosmos, and therefore the author’s increased attention is attracted to issues of cosmogenesis. Step by step, the successive stages of cosmogenesis are analyzed. Neither the existence of angels is ignored (here Palamas thinks in accordance with tradition), nor more specific issues - for example, the existence of the ether. In resolving this last problem, St. Gregory, with a few strokes, tries to reconcile those contradictions in the interpretation of the fifth element that his sources conveyed to him. Thus, his thinking is not a summation of different opinions (like the work of a mosaicist), but rather an analysis carried out in the spirit of a thought experiment. Palamas’s cosmos is permeated with movement, evolutionism – and freedom (which was not the case among the Hellenes, and was rare in the Middle Ages; perhaps in this regard we should pay special attention to Psellus and his intellectual horizons, truly unique for pre-Palaeologian Byzantium). The pinnacle of this evolutionism is the doctrine that the main thing in the world, its very order and expediency, are prepared for man, or rather, predetermined for him - for comprehension, good use and development - in which the supreme (after God) dominion of man in the cosmos is realized. In his analysis, Palamas gradually approaches the point of view of the new European science, and above all with his attention to the practical, symbolic and “metrological” side of the world, to its balance and uniformity, which (according to Palamas) creates the basis not only for practical suitability, but also for future scientific measurements. In the field of anthropology, Palamas provides an ascetic-soteriological basis for the hesychast doctrine of smart work and enlightenment by the Light of Tabor as one of the energies of the Divine. Related to this is the primary interest of the teacher of silence in the problems of soteriology and eschatology. This in itself is not unusual for the Orthodox tradition (it is enough to recall the ancient texts of the period of “actual eschatology,” i.e., the turn of the 1st–2nd centuries). But Palamas’s anthropology contains a lot that is new in 1497 and consonant with his time. This applies to such subjects as the interpretation of the image of St. John the Baptist in a consistently hesychast spirit, as well as an unusual systematicity for a hesychast monk (although reminiscent of the teaching on the genealogy of the passions of Gregory the Sinaite), attention to the classification of passions and virtues and the breadth of the ideological horizon: all questions, be it a casual remark or an analysis of a process of paramount importance, St. Gregory interprets from the height of an integral and holistic picture of the Orthodox Christian worldview, explaining this or that phenomenon not only from the point of view of eternity, but also from the point of view of its relevance for the universe as a whole. For the Archbishop of Thessaloniki it is not difficult to connect the seemingly purely local manifestations of social conflicts in Thessalonica with the general principles and problems of Christian anthropology and convey this connection to his listeners: this is why his homilies are interesting and valuable both as a historical source and as a spiritual-historical one. At the same time, the new content of the teaching and preaching of the teacher of silence is built by him on the centuries-old basis of the Orthodox tradition. Along with the Cappadocians and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, for St. Gregory Palamas, the works of such Fathers of the Church as St. Maximus the Confessor, John of Damascus, Andrew of Crete, Anastasius I, Hesychius of Sinai, Simeon the New Theologian, Theoliptus of Philadelphia, Gregory of Cyprus, Nikephoros the Hesychast and author of "The Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention". It is precisely because of the harmonious union of St. Gregory’s devotion to tradition with the richness and uniqueness of his own spiritual experience in his homilies did not ignore the general issues of Christian anthropology in the totality of its constituent sections (hamartology, ecclesiology, the doctrine of the image and likeness of God, soteriology). He developed a teaching about the soul and body that is striking in insight and depth, about the passions and vices inherent in the human soul, of which Palamas counts, according to our data, 157, and about the efforts of virtue that overcome the abyss of vice, coupled with the grace of God. Defending the soteriological reality of deification and revealing to the listeners its Christological and mystical-ascetic prerequisites, St. Gregory Palamas defends the reality of the church's experience of communion with God itself, continuing the previous tradition of the Orthodox Church, starting with the apostolic men, apologists, Irenaeus and Melito. It was this reality that the anti-Palamites tried to deny. Study of the homilies of St. Gregory allows the researcher to develop a deeper look at the hesychast dispute as one of the last pages of the great struggle of the Church against Hellenism, skepticism and unhealthy mysticism of an eclectic-magical kind 1498. All these teachings consistently deprive a person of both immortality and freedom, while following the church teachings developed by St. Gregory Palamas, introduces a person to eternal life. The positions and observations expressed by the saint receive concrete historical explication in the sphere of characterizing his contemporary society. Palamas combines traditionalism in his description with a fresh look and attention to unexpected, at first glance, but significant phenomena and layers of social life and culture - in particular, to the problems of folk culture. It is with the characteristics of the latter that perhaps the most recent and unexpected at first glance observations of Palamas on the alarming spiritual and psychological state of Thessalonians, their way of thinking, alarmed by the instability of social development, and marginal (and essentially heterodox in origin) ritual practices are associated. At the same time, these data also find solid confirmation in earlier sources (for us these were the “Questions and Answers” ​​of Nikita Maroneisky), so that in this area of ​​the characteristics of society, Palamas’ information deserves trust as evidence of a reliable eyewitness who understands the essence and form of the phenomena under consideration. In general, the main conclusion that I would like to draw from homilies is their reliability. Reliability as a source, a means of exhortation, a guide to action... St. Gregory never undertakes to talk about any phenomenon without thoroughly studying its spiritual, psychological, and social background. In the system of explanations he develops, we repeat, the world of the human spirit and soul and their relationship with God takes first place. For the saint, a person is an active figure in history, a co-worker of Divine Providence and grace, a free and “thinking reed”, responsible for his words, actions and thoughts. Finally, in the fourth chapter, those paths and expressive means with the help of which Palama achieves the greatest ideological and emotional-psychological impact on his listeners are only partially highlighted and analyzed. The concept of indirect artistry and its implementation in rhetorical and theological texts that we put forward (based on the structural-functional approach to the text developed by R. O. Yakobson and Yu. M. Lotman) is intended to provide a satisfactory explanation for the fact that Palamas - consciously or not - is a fairly subtle artist of the word, which, of course, was never separated from his work and vital needs. In this case, we should talk about both 1) the semi-conscious borrowing and assimilation by the saint of the general wealth of rhetorical means and figures that are characteristic of the biblical and patriotic tradition, and 2) about the author’s originality in the selection and implementation of these means with the aim of having the greatest impact on the listener and reader. Nine main means of such influence are identified and briefly analyzed (using basic examples). According to our assumption, confirmed by some textual comparisons, the homilies were originally written down as text, which is confirmed both by the coincidence of some fragments of individual homilies with each other and with other works of Palamas, and primarily with the “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters” (not to mention the ideological similarity). Both of the above aspects - like two wings of a diptych - took place, and it is in their dual unity that one should look for the reasons for the impact of the word and preaching of Palamas, which took place both in Byzantium and beyond (during the Turkish captivity) and which, having already been noted by Patriarch Philotheus, continues to affect the minds, hearts and consciousness of people. By considering the named stylistic aspect (in its inextricable connection with the ideological-substantive aspect), one is even more convinced that Palamas’ world is a holistic and meaningful world, enlightened by the rays of that Light of Tabor, which the saint glorified throughout his life... Saint Gregory Palamas, of course, can be called our teacher and guide in our desire, penetrating “under the purple of matter,” to think and comprehend what is happening from the womb Churches... What has been said, we hope, will serve to develop a comprehensive and comprehensive view of the personality and work of the largest church thinker and preacher of Byzantium of the Palaiologan era, which would take into account the fact that, as in the 4th century, the Church Fathers of the 14th century were not alien to scientific and intellectual culture, and would contribute to a deeper and dialectical understanding of this era itself - at least in its anthropic context, which turns out to be primary in relation to the totality other - social, political, military, economic, legal - aspects. Appendix: St. Gregory Palamas. Three chapters on prayer and purity of heart See also: HIS about prayer and purity of heart, three chapters of St. Gregory Palamas (Philokalia. Volume V) The translation of this treatise, carried out according to its publication in Min’s “Patrology” (PG. 150. 1117–1121), was first published by us in the collection: World of Orthodoxy. Volgograd, 2000. Issue. 3. pp. 67–69. There we also tried (based on the achievements of the previous scientific tradition, and primarily on the works of R. E. Sinkevich) to substantiate the dating of the work: 1334 - the first half of 1335 (Makarov D.I. The Teaching of Gregory Palamas on the Purification of Man... P. 62). However, the first edition of the translation, partially reviewed by Prof. H.-F. Bayer, nevertheless suffered from a number of inaccuracies and errors, sometimes quite fundamental. In the present - second - edition, all these errors and misunderstandings have been eliminated, which is why it can be considered as a new work, which, we hope, will acquaint the readership with the initial stage of ascetic practice and theological thought of the great ascetic and saint. Saint Gregory, pray to God for us! 1. Since the Divine is Absolute Goodness and - truly - mercy and the abyss of kindness, or better [to say] - That which also embraces this abyss, as surpassing every name that is called and [every] intelligible phenomenon, [then] only through union with Him is it possible to receive this mercy. And a person is united with Him - as far as [this] is possible - by engaging in similar virtues and through communication in prayer and unity, [achieved] by praying to God. However, the communication through the virtues is such that it makes the one who is diligent, through assimilation [to the Divine], capable of perceiving the Divine, but [it is not able to] unite [him with God]; the power of his prayer 1499 is sacred and completes man’s ascent to the Divine and unity [with Him], being a link connecting rational creatures with the Creator ([this is achieved when] the [fruits] of prayer with ardent contrition surpass passions and thoughts). For it is impossible for a mind overcome by passions to unite with God. So, as long as the mind remains like this while praying, it will not receive mercy; but to the extent [he] is able to get rid of thoughts, he plunges into crying. And according to the extent of this crying, he receives the mercy of consolation 1500; and if at the same time he strengthens himself in humility, he will completely transform the passionate part of the soul 1501. 2. When the unity of the mind becomes trinitarian, remaining one, it is combined with the unity of the Divine Trinity, blocking access to any error and becoming above the flesh, the world and the World Ruler. And thus, completely freed from their grasp, he remains in himself and in God, enjoying to the fullest as long as he remains as such 1502 - exuding spiritual rejoicing from within himself. And the unity of the mind becomes threefold, remaining united 1503, in its (i.e., the mind - D.M.) turning to itself and ascending through itself to God. The turning of the mind to itself is watching over itself 1504, and its ascent to God is first accomplished through prayer - and moreover, through a prayer that cleaves [to it] 1505, and sometimes - it happens - through one that has become longer, which is unbearably harder. But if someone remains steadfast in this gathering of the mind and ascent to God, with a decisive effort squeezing the passage of his own mind [for bad thoughts], then he mentally approaches God, acquires unspeakable [goods], experiences [the bliss] of the next century and with a spiritual feeling knows that the Lord is good - just as the Psalmist says: “Taste and see that the Lord is good!” (Ps.33:9) 1507. So, on the one hand, to find a single mind - one and the same - threefold: observing [oneself] and being observed, and praying while observing, is perhaps not so difficult, but, on the other hand, to remain for a long time adamant in such a state, giving rise to ineffable [goods], is extremely painful. After all, any labor [to acquire] another virtue is small and easily bearable in comparison with this one. That is why many, having retreated due to the inaccessibility of this prayerful virtue, do not achieve an abundance of talents; but those who endure [all difficulties] are made more powerful by the gifts of God - and, testing [those] and supporting 1508, they encourage them to joyfully [move] further, making the difficult [virtue] more effective, and putting, so to speak, into our nature angelic skill, making it possible for this [nature] to communicate with that which is above nature 1509, according to spoken through the prophet: “Those who hope will lift up their wings and renew their strength...” (cf. Is. 40:31). 3. The activity of the mind, consisting of thoughts and reflections, is also called mind; in addition, the mind is the force that causes them, which Scripture also calls the heart. In accordance with this [force], the most important of our internal forces, our soul is rational (λογικὴ) - or, rather, the activity of the mind, [consisting] in thoughts (λογισμοῖς), [which] for those who spend time in prayer, and mainly in monosyllabic 1510, is easily calmed and purified, while the force that generates it (potency, δύναμις) cannot be cleansed unless all the other powers of the soul [are cleansed]. For the soul is a single living being with many powers. This is why it is completely desecrated: [when] evil arises from any of its forces, [then] all [the others] are combined with this one [force] due to the unity of the soul. And since each of the forces is accompanied by its own special action, [then] it is possible, thanks to diligence, to temporarily purify the action of any one [of the forces]; but thanks to this, this force itself will not become pure: after all, communicating with [all] other [forces], it will rather remain uncleaned than pure. Therefore, the one who has purified - thanks to diligence in prayer - the activity of the mind, and [becomes] enlightened to the extent of [his purity] - either by the light of knowledge, or [more than that] by mental illumination 1511. But if because of this he considers himself purified, [then] he will fall into error, uttering lies against himself, and, [driven by] self-conceit, he will open [to himself] who is trying to fall into [this] error forever and ever (τῷ πλανᾷν ἀεὶ ἐπιχειροῦντι), a wide door [leading] away from oneself 1512. If he knows the impurity of his own heart, [then] let him not boast of that [very] moderate purity of his; [and now], using it 1513 as an assistant, [he] more clearly sees the impurity of other spiritual forces, succeeds in humility, adds to crying and appropriately seeks healing for each of the forces of the soul: for the active - active, for knowledge - cognitive, and for prayer - contemplative 1514, purifying itself. And thanks to them, he enters into perfect, true and unshakable purity of heart and mind, which would never have arisen in anyone if it had not been [acquired] by perfection in deeds, persistent contrition, contemplation and prayer [performed] in contemplation. In preparing this book, the author has enjoyed the continued goodwill and support of colleagues and scientific institutions. I would like to name many of them. First of all, the author expresses deep and endless gratitude to his scientific supervisor - the recognized head of the Ural school of Byzantine studies, Doctor of History. sciences, prof. M.A. Polyakovskaya for her selfless consent to guide his work and good advice throughout the journey. I am also deeply grateful to the staff of the Department of History of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages of the Ural State University named after A. M. Gorky, and especially V. A. Smetanin, A. I. Romanchuk, X.-F. Bayer, deputy head department to A. S. Kozlov, L. A. Omelkova. Great assistance to the author, especially in the initial stages of work, was provided by I. P. Medvedev, A. I. Sidorov, N. D. Barabanov, A. G. Yemanov, Ya. N. Lyubarsky, S. N. Malakhov, Archimandrite. Maximos Lavriotes. Prof. Hélène Ahrweiler, rector of the Sorbonne, kindly sent a copy of her book, and Dr. Andrew J. Sopko, Dr. Petre Guran, I.V. Krivushin, D.I. Polyvyanny, A.V. Barmin - a number of valuable books and articles. The concept of the book was defined and clarified in conversations with V.V. Vasilik, A.V. Muravyov, S.P. Purgin and in an unforgettable conversation with V.N. Toporov. I am deeply grateful to G. M. Prokhorov, G. G. Litavrin, K. K. Akentyev, Hierarch. Dionysius (Shlenov), A. V. Parin, A. I. Bogatyrev, V. S. Shandrovskaya, L. G. Klimanov, A. A. Talyzina, B. Typkova-Zaimova, Rev. P. Gerhard Podskalsky, S. J., Prof. Anthony A. M. Bryer, Prof. Andrew Louth, Prof. Robert W. Thomson for their assistance with advice and materials, and for their participation. I would also like to extend words of gratitude to my friends - U. L. Culver, V. A. Perevalov, L. Yu. Kostogryzova, K. I. Lobovikova, M. A. Morozov, N. S. Smelova - and relatives (I especially want to mention my parents in this regard, as well as O. B. Sokurov and A. V. Chichilimov) for their endless patience, insight and readiness to help at any time. D. A. Pospelov and A. G. Dunaev provided invaluable support with advice and literature, which largely influenced my ideas about the subject being studied and the era as a whole. Finally, with a feeling of enormous and endless gratitude and joy, the author recalls the invaluable assistance and participation that the priest incessantly provided him - in word, deed, advice - during different periods of work on this book. Gregory (Lurie). I would especially like to remember and say words of gratitude to the staff of library teams - the staff of the library of the St. Petersburg branch of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the staff of the Cabinet of Byzantine Studies of the Ural University, as well as the staff of the library of the Yekaterinburg Orthodox Theological Seminary for their help and assistance in their work. I am also grateful to the vice-rector of the said seminary, Archpriest Peter Mangilev, and Dr. Konstantin Tsukerman (Paris) for giving me the opportunity to live and study in Paris during the XX International Congress of Byzantinists, and to the director of the publishing house O. L. Abyshko for the kind offer to publish this book in the “Library of Christian Thought” series. Without the friendly and interested participation of all these individuals, this book would not have been written. Toporov V. N. The Thing in an Anthropocentric Perspective (Plyushkin’s Apology) // Him. Myth. Ritual. Symbol. Image. Research in the field of mythopoetic. M., 1995. P. 7. Jakobson R. The Kernel of Comparative Slavic Literature // Idem. Selected Writings. Vol. VI. Pt. 1. Comparative Slavic Studies. The Cyrillo-Methodian Tradition. Berlin; N. Y.; Amsterdam, 1985. P. 3. Translation of the epigraph: “...for language is not reducible to any one of its functions; at the same time, its aesthetic function is one of the most vital and integral.” Bart R. Fundamentals of semiology / Transl. from fr. G.K. Kosikova // Structuralism: pros and cons. M., 1975. P. 158. For reasons discussed below, we deliberately avoid using the word “artistic” here. Compare: Ginzburg L. About a literary hero. L., 1979. P. 44; etc. In this sense, the structuralism of R. O. Jacobson and the Moscow-Tartu school is opposed to psychoanalysis and Freudianism, on the one hand, and postmodernism, on the other, as scientificism is opposed to two non-scientificities. See the harsh but fair formulations of M. L. Gasparov in: Gasparov M. L. “Analysis of a poetic text” by Yu. M. Lotman: 1960–1990s // Lotman collection. M., 1995. T. 1. P. 188–191. On the precursors of this current of scientific thought, see also: Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Essays on the history of semiotics in the USSR. M., 1976; His same. Selected works on semiotics and cultural history. M., 1999. T. 1; Yu. M. Lotman and the Moscow-Tartu semiotic school. M., 1994 (the articles by V. N. Toporov, B. A. Uspensky and B. M. Gasparov are especially important here); From the works of the Moscow semiotic circle...; Zeichen – Text – Kultur. Studien zu den sprach- und kultursemiotischen Arbeiten von Vjač. Vs. Ivanov and V. N. Toporov/ Hrsg. K. Eimermacher, P. Grzybek. Bochum, 1991; etc. N.A. Berdyaev speaks very clearly about this in “Philosophy of Freedom” (see: N.A. Berdyaev. Philosophy of Freedom. The meaning of creativity. M., 1989). Here we present these well-known facts for the sole purpose of trying to outline for the reader the scale and simplicity of the problem; Philosophical, philological and general scientific thought (and at the same time, by the way, art - in particular poetry), starting from the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, have been feeling and thinking through such problems hand in hand and surprisingly synchronously, causing understandable interest and amazement among specialists in each of these areas. In this perspective, it is useful to refer, for example, to the collection: Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Selected works... M., 2000. T. 2. Articles on Russian literature. – Let the reader remember the names of Blok, Bely, Khlebnikov, Vyach. Ivanov, Pasternak, Gumilyov, Voloshin, Proust, etc., to assess what we are talking about. In this sense, the understanding of form as a kind of “empty frame” of a work corresponded to the “Newtonian” and not the “Einsteinian” stage of the development of philological science, which has already been repeatedly noted in criticism. Lotman Yu. M. The structure of a literary text. M., 1970. P. 19. Right there. P. 195; Wed: Ginzburg L. About the literary hero. pp. 16 et seq. Jakobson R. What is poetry? //Idem. Language in Literature. Cambridge (Mass.); L., 1987.P.378. Lotman Yu. M. The structure of a literary text. P. 195. Right there. Wed. Below is an example of the analysis of the sequence of five successive turns of the Accusativus cum infinitivo in the text of the Sixth Homily of Palamas. Uspensky B. A. Anatomy of metaphor in Mandelstam // His own. Poetics of composition. Articles. St. Petersburg, 2000. P. 292. Cf. numerous analyzes of poetry (starting from the same article by Uspensky), carried out by representatives of various national schools and scientific traditions (we have the same Yu. M. Lotman, K. F. Taranovsky, M. L. Gasparov, V. N. Toporov, S. S. Averintsev, E. G. Etkind and many others). See: Lyubarsky Ya. N. Michael Psellus in Byzantine studies of the last twenty years // Μοσχοβία. Problems of Byzantine and modern Greek philology. T. 1. M., 2001. P. 267–268 (indicating sources and literature). Y. N. Lyubarsky himself is inclined towards structuralism and is one of the promoters of its active implementation in Byzantine studies, which is difficult to disagree with (see: Dolinin K. A., Lyubarsky Y. N. Narrative structures in Byzantine historiography // Lyubarsky Y. N. Byzantine historians and writers. pp. 355–371). About the hierarchy of codes (epochal, genre, style...) and its dynamics, the change in reading expectations among different generations of readers and similar phenomena, see, in particular: Lotman Yu. M. Lectures on structural poetics. Part 1. Introduction, theory of verse // Yu. M. Lotman and the Moscow-Tartu semiotic school...; His same. On the content and structure of the concept of “fiction” // Problems of poetics and history of literature. Saransk, 1973. P. 20 et seq.; see also the letter from L.L. Fialkova dated May 1, 1983. Him. Letters. 1940–1993 / Comp., prepared. text, intro. Art. and comm. B.F. Egorova. M., 1997. P. 718; etc. In the case of the Bishop of Thessaloniki, as we could partly see in Chap. 2, in some cases there was deliberate editing. Polyvyanny D. I. Historiography in the context of culture: (Based on the material of the Bulgarian book literature of the 10th–14th centuries) // Historical thought in Byzantium and the medieval West. Ivanovo, 1998. P. 91. I sincerely thank prof. I.V. Krivushin, who sent me this collection. Laiou A. E. The Correspondence of Gregorios Kyprios... Passim. The increasingly intensified studies of Byzantine rhetoric in recent times are beginning to include sermons; see as one example: Junod E. Die Stellung der Lehre von der Freiheit in den homiletischen Schriften des Origenes und ihre Bedeutung für die Ethik // Gnadenwahl und Entscheidungsfreiheit in der Theologie der Alten Kirche / Hrsg. F. von Lilenfeld und E. Mühlenberg. Erlangen, 1980, pp. 32–44. Sevčenko I. Nicolaus Cabasilas’ Correspondence and the Treatment of Late Byzantine Literary Texts // BZ. 1954. Bd. 47/1. In addition to the famous compendiums of H.-G. Beck and G. Hunger on the history of Byzantine church and secular literature, the works of these authors should also be indicated: Beck H.-G. Theodoras Metochites...; Idem. Rede als Kunstwerk und Bekenntnis...; Idem. Byzantinistik heute. B.; N.Y., 1977; Hunger H. Aspekte der griechischen Rhetorik von Gorgias bis zum Untergang von Byzanz. Wien, 1972; etc. Kurbatov G. L. Rhetoric // Culture of Byzantium. IV – first half of the 7th century. C. 342. According to Palamas, syllogisms with a proven premise are based on them. See, for example: Christu P. The teaching of St. Gregory Palamas on dual knowledge // Alpha and Omega. 2001. No. 3 (29). P. 127. T[aft] R. F. Sermon // The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium / Ed. A. P. Kazhdan. N.Y.; Oxford, 1991. Vol. 3. P. 1880–1881. This classification in relation to homiletics on the Transfiguration was developed in the already mentioned book by M. Sacho: Sachot M. L’homélie... The conclusions of this work, the most important for theologians and liturgists, were accepted by A.P. Kazhdan in his history of Byzantine literature of the early period: Kazhdan A. (in collaboration with Lee F. Sherry – Christine Angelidi). A history of Byzantine literature (650–850). Athens, 1999. See, for example: Lotman Yu. M. Artistic space in Gogol’s prose // Him. At the school of poetic words: Pushkin. Lermontov. Gogol. M., 1988. P. 266. Bakhtin M. M. Epic and novel // VL. 1970. No. 1. Gurevich A. Ya. Social psychology and history. Source study aspect // Source study. Theoretical and methodological problems. M., 1969. S. 425–426; etc. For now, see the work, which is one of the first experiments in moving in this direction: Kazhdan A. (in collaboration with Lee F. Sherry – Christine Angelidi). A history of Byzantine literature... The author's conclusions are open to challenge; in particular, the assertion that for St. Andrew of Crete The Transfiguration is only “a symbol... of God’s mercy” (p. 43), while the sermon opens with an indication that the Feast of the Transfiguration marks the real deification of human nature (PG. 97. 933A): with a symbolic understanding of light, no deification through the experience of communion with the light is impossible, and it is this position that St. objects to. Andrey! This is precisely the position of the anti-Palamites. However, the experience of combining a historian, theologian and literary critic in one person must be continued. Regarding the last image cf.: 76C; 545A; etc. This image is already found in the “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters” (chapter 41). See: ... ὁ νοητὸς καὶ ἀρχἐκακός ἐστιν ὄφις ἄγγελος ... (a rare example of the negative use of the word “angel”! - D. M.) (Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 128. 41. 2–3). ... τοῦ θεοῦ τοῖς κατ᾽ αὐτοὺς ἀξίοις (448C). Translation: “...the accursed Messalians tend to believe that the essence of God is visible to those among them whom [they regard as] worthy.” Rigo A. Monaci esicastie monaci bogomili... P. 269, 274. Sevčenko I. Levels of Style in Byzantine Prose // JÖB. 1981. Bd. 31/1. Tinnefeld F. Kriterien und Varianten des Stils im Briefcorpus des Demetrios Kydones // JÖB. 1982. Bd. 32/3. Tinnefeld uses the term Stilstufen (Ibid. S. 257 usw.). Tinnefeld is also responsible for the analysis of the correspondence of various intellectuals of late Byzantium (in Russian science, one should point out the similar, although original, works of V. A. Smetanin). See: Tinnefeld F. "Freundschaft" in den Briefen des Michael Psellos. Theorie und Wirklichkeit // JÖB. 1973. Bd. 22. S. 151–168; Smetanin V. A. Byzantine society of the 13th–15th centuries according to epistolography; His same. Epistology of late Byzantium. Proeleusis (specific historical part) // ADSV. 1978. Vol. 15. pp. 60–82. The main works were indicated above; see also: Lyubarsky Ya. N. Historical hero in the “Chronography” of Michael Psellus // VV. 1972. T. 33. pp. 92–114 (experience of systematizing the characters of the Byzantine emperors in the description of Psellus); Krivushin I. V. A story between order and chaos...; His same. Historical concept of Theodoret of Cyrrhus // Historical thought in Byzantium and the medieval West. pp. 34–60; Krivushin I. V., Krivushina E. S. Ancient tragedy in church history: Justin the Younger in the depiction of Evagrius Scholasticus // Forms of historical consciousness from late antiquity to the Renaissance. pp. 58–72; Krivushin I. V. The image of history in Theophylact Simocatta // Personality – idea – text in the culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Collection of scientific works in honor of the sixty-fifth birthday of Nina Viktorovna Revyakina / Ed. I. V. Krivushina and E. S. Krivushina. Ivanovo, 2001. pp. 48–65 (analysis of exceptional depth; should be recognized as exemplary). Also important is the article: Krivouchine I. [V.] L’empereur païen vu par l’historien ecclésiastique: Julien l’Apostat de Socrate // JÖB. 1997. Bd. 47. P. 13–24; and others. Krivushin’s works deserve the closest attention and detailed review. With great benefit, we became acquainted with her research, published in Russian: Alissandratos Yu. A. Traces of patriotic types of praise... Markasova E. V. Preface to the Life of Cornelius Vygovsky and the tradition of creating prefaces in hagiography of the 17th – early 18th centuries. // TODRL. 1999. T. 51. pp. 243–252. We will limit ourselves to pointing out the following works: Jacobson R. O. Hymn in Hilarion's Word on Law and Grace // Jakobson Roman. Selected Writings. Vol. VI. Early Slavic Paths and Crossroads. Part Two. Medieval Slavic Studies / Ed., with a preface, by Stephen Rudy. B.; N. Y.; Amsterdam, 1985, pp. 402–414; Jacobson Roman and Levi-Strauss Claude. “Cats” by Charles Baudelaire // Structuralism: pros and cons. pp. 231–255; Jacobson R. O. Russian echoes of ancient Czech monuments about Lyudmila // Cultural heritage of Ancient Rus'. Origins. Becoming. Traditions. M., 1976. S. 46–50; Eremin I. P. Oratory of Kirill Turovsky (1962) // His own. Literature of Ancient Rus': (Sketches and Characteristics). M.; L., 1966. S. 132–143; Toporov V. N. Holiness and saints in Russian spiritual culture. T. 1–2; Sazonova L. I. Rhythmic-syntactic elements in the “Collection of 1076” // Cultural heritage of Ancient Rus'. pp. 38–42; Lotman Yu. M. Rhetoric // TZS. Tartu, 1981. T. 12. P. 5–32; Plyukhanova M. B. Rhetorical style of Abraham Palitsyn: (Symbolization of grammatical categories) // TZS. Tartu, 1987. T. 21. pp. 42–53; Chertoritskaya T. V. Stylistic symmetry in the architectonics of Kirill Turovsky’s Solemn Words // Questions of plot and composition. Gorky, 1984. pp. 18–24; Dvinyatin F. N. Topics and binary constructions in the Solemn Words of Kirill Turovsky: (towards the formulation of the problem) // Bulletin of St. Petersburg State University. 1994. Ser. 2. Issue. 2. pp. 49–57 (many valuable ideas); His same. Traditional text in the Solemn Words of St. Kirill Turovsky. Biblical quotation // Hermeneutics of Old Russian literature. M., 1995. Sat. 8. We are no longer talking about the works of A. N. Veselovsky, E. R. Kurtsius, V. P. Adrianova-Peretz and others. On the role of homeotelevts as predecessors of rhyme in modern European literature, see: Averintsev S.S. The birth of rhyme from the spirit of Greek “dialectics” // Him. Poetics of early Byzantine literature. M., 1997. pp. 233–249 and 304–306. A particularly interesting problem is the question of whether the written text of the homilies (which, perhaps in some modification by students and later scribes, we are able to see today) differed from the oral text actually spoken in front of an audience. Unfortunately, the limited information that has been preserved in the Encomia of Patr. Filofey is not allowed to give any detailed answer to this question. The Greek original is laconic, but largely thanks to this lapidary nature, the main idea sounds stronger: κόσμῳ ... (333A). This is one of the most noted fragments of the “anthropic” text, which - no matter how banal this conclusion may be! - along with the “theocentric” text, it turns out - in terms of content and, as we are now convinced, also in terms of expression - central in the homilies, and its formation and appeal outward, to the ears and hearts of the listeners, is the main task of the preacher. Naturally, strengthening the rhetoric (rhetoricization) of the text of the homilies is a subtask of this task. In a more distant sense, one could also recall the words of the chorus in Sophocles’ Antigone (translated by S. P. Shervinsky): “There are many miracles in the world - // Man is the most wonderful of them all...” (not to mention the Corpus Hermeticum and Pico della Mirandola quoting it). For a note about the “Hermetic Corps” and Mirandola, see: Medvedev I.P. Byzantine humanism XIV–XV centuries. P. 119 and approx. 34. Wed. the entire chapter “The Concept of Man in the Worldview of Byzantine Humanists” (pp. 110–126). Here we can again recall the teaching of St. Callistos Angelicoudès on the return to the “iconic likeness of the Divine Archetype” as a result of the feat of asceticism - with the assistance of the Holy Spirit (Callistos Angelicoudès. Quatre traités... P. 224). In addition, cf. one of the most important works of St. Gregory of Nysse, which contains the glorification of monasticism as a state of equal angels (which in itself presupposes the supremacy of man and angels over the entire created world): S. Grégoire de Nysse. Vie de sainte Macrine.. P. 176–180. Wed. on p. 180. 11. 44–45: monasticism is... (“...life soaring [upward] with heavenly powers”). See in the Leiden edition: S. Gregorii Nysseni De vita Moysis... The same [David Disipate] legend of how Varlaam invented and composed his heresy // Prokhorov G. M. Works of David Disipat in Old Russian Literature // TODRL. 1979. T. 33. pp. 50–51. Saint Gregory Palamas. Svyatogorsk Tomos.../ Trans. T. A. Miller // Alpha and Omega. 1995. No. 3 (6). pp. 72–73. Original see: PG. 150.1232BD. About the commitment of St. Gregory Palamas of the patristic tradition is said by almost all serious researchers of his teaching; see for a general introduction: Meyendorff John, prot. Saint Gregory Palamas and Orthodox mysticism // Him. Church history and Eastern Christian mysticism; from lesser-known works cf.: Tachiaos A.-E. Hesychasm as a creative force in the fields of art and literature // L'art de Thessalonique et des pays Balkaniques... P. 118; etc. Palamas has the same root derivatives - συνδιαιωνίζειν (literally - “to co-exist”, “to be with someone forever”) - συνδιαιωνίζουσαν, συνδιαιωνίσομεν. See, for example: 348AB. Let us note the dynamism of the construction with the infinitive. In addition, it is interesting to wonder whether for Cypriots (at least on a subconscious level) the plural is correlated. number of the form αὐγάς with the idea of ​​a multiplicity of energies, of which at least part appears to the world in the form of rays? This word looks like a more antique in comparison with Palamas’ frequency κληρονομία (cf. Modern Greek κληρονομία - “heritage”). Wed. given in Chap. 2.8 parallels from St. Maximus the Confessor, Gregory Palamas and from the Nile of Constantinople. From these words it is clear that St. Gregory of Cyprus rather aligned himself with the “mystical” current of Byzantine patristic thought in regard to the consideration of the issue of the unity of the light and energies of God (in our work of 2000 we called the second current “dogmatic”, although this distinction itself is very conditional). Rapp C. Ein bisher unbekannter Brief... S. 20.19. 284–290. See about them: Popova O. S. Asceticism and Transfiguration... Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 316. On the style of the Theotokos homilies of Palamas, see ibid., p. 316–319 (in connection with the history of ideas). We are not specifically engaged in Mariology here. A number of works by Catholic patrolologists (Fr. Martin Jugi; Fr. Ciro Gianelli, O.I.; Fr. Bernhard Schulze, O.I.), as well as the just cited section in Meyendorff’s book, are devoted to this. It would be useful if, on the Orthodox side, someone wrote a study in the form of a separate article on the implementation of hymnographic and, more broadly, liturgical motifs in the Theotokos homilies of St. Gregory. See comments to this place in Ch. 1.2.1. An exceptionally elevated style is generally characteristic of Byzantine Mother of God homilies. See, for example, the sermons of St. John of Damascus, Photius, Nicholas Cabasilas, Theophanes of Nicea and others. For more details, see: Ράντοβιτς A. That μυστήριον... Ιδιατέρως σελ. 110 k. τ. λ. , 134. Makarov D. I. On the issue of numerology of St. Gregory Palamas... Wed. in part: Bychkov V. V. On the issue of Eastern Christian epistemology // Historical and philosophical collection. Proceedings of the theoretical conference of graduate students of the Faculty of Philosophy (February 1971). M., 1971. Staniloae D. Prière de Jésus et expérience du Saint – Esprit. P. 60. It is useful to consider this statement, which is an authentic expression of the mystical experience of the Eastern Church, in the context of the apophatic statements of the Fathers collected by V. N. Lossky: Lossky V. I. Essay on the mystical theology of the Eastern Church. Ch. 2. Divine darkness // Mystical theology. Kyiv, 1991. pp. 107–122, about St. Gregory of Nyssa - especially s. 116. The reader who is keen on searching for analogies with modern literature may recall the ending of the first part of Goethe's Faust; however, the text itself, strictly speaking, does not require precisely such an understanding: there are closer parallels. See, for example, the excerpt from the homily of St. published by M. Obino. John of Beirut (Hésychius de Jérusalem et al. Homélies pascales. P. 296–299). The Russian translation of this passage, accompanied by an introductory article by D. A. Pospelov and D. I. Makarov, should be published in the journal “Bulletin of Church History” (2002. In print). St. Melito of Sardis. About Easter / Transl. A. G. Dunaeva // SDHA. P. 535. Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 180.83.7–8: Εὐνομιανοί εἰσι σαφῶς. Candal M., S. J. La Confesion de fe antipalamitica de Gregorio Acindino // OCP. 1959. V. 25. P. 216. 16–17 (Latin translation by the author - Ibid. P. 217). Translation by D. A. Pospelov: “...God, not subject to change, uncreated, incorporeal, immaterial, [the Unit] simple, indivisible, indescribable, without limit, immutable...” (Manuscript from my archive. Not published). We interrupt the quotation at this point also because the following definition of God the Trinity as ἄποιον (“qualityless”) (Ibid.) is unacceptable from the point of view of Orthodox theology (and the theology of St. Gregory Palamas as well): God in His essence is so incomprehensible that one cannot even say this about Him, but only that He is. By energy, He reveals His qualities to us, and this is precisely what cataphatic theology is based on. Toporov V. N. Space and text // From the works of the Moscow semiotic circle. pp. 455–515. It is also indicated there that an expanded edition of this article was published in a book (inaccessible to us): His. About mythopoetic space. Pisa, 1994, pp. 17–125. Compare, by the way, Toporov’s indications of the “anthropocentricity” of language (Toporov V.N. Space and text... P. 473. Note 33). Recently, relevant studies (by A. Wierzbicka and others) have attracted increasing interest. Compare: Lotman Yu. M. At the school of poetic words...; His same. Letter from L.L. Fialkova dated July 15, 1983 (No. 731) // Letters. pp. 719–721, esp., p. 720 (about two understandings of space in modern semiotics). Translation of this part of the phrase: “...and not everything [he] has (lit. - acquired, received) from this matter and the sensory world, like other living beings, but only the body; the soul - from the supermundane, or rather, from God Himself, thanks to an indescribable inspiration, as something great and wonderful, surpassing [itself] everything (i.e. the universe. - D. M.)..." Wed. from Chrysostom: “Moreover, here (i.e. in this world. - D.M.) there is a lot of work for those who sow seeds, but there what is sown grows without a plow, without oxen, without tillers and without any worry, and those who sow there need never be afraid of drought, nor flood, nor honeydew, nor hail, nor a mass of locusts, nor anything else (cf.: Matthew 13:3–9)" (Like our holy father John... Chrysostom Conversations on the Book of Genesis. M., 1993 (rep.). T. 2. P. 733). Again, the parallels from other historical and cultural eras are countless; but perhaps the poet best described this situation: “Wo aber Geiahr ist, wächst das Rettende auch” - “But where there is danger, there the saving one grows.” Wed. similar motives in Rilke and in modern European lyrics (including Greek). If we recall (see Chapter 3.7) the terminology of the Moscow-Tartu school, we can say that “text-psogos” and “text-encomium” form two inextricably linked (and, moreover, necessary) fragments (or levels) of the “anthropic text”. As has sometimes been suggested: Clucas L. M. Eschatological Theory in Byzantine Hesychasm: A Parallel to Joachim da Fiore? // BZ. 1977. Bd. 70/2. As happened with many anti-Palamites - for example, the Kydonis brothers, Manuel Kaleka, John Kyparisiot and others. Lomonosov M. V. Ode on the day of accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty the Empress Elisaveta Petrovna in 1747 // Russian literature - XVIII century. Lyrics / Rep. ed. N. D. Kochetkova. M., 1990. P. 70. For whom the word “humanism,” even if they were able to realize its meaning, would most likely mean a fixation of the Christian gospel about a person who is completely included in a new life. To the extent that this word generally retains its meaning for the medieval tradition. As well as misconceptions in triadology; It is no secret that the teaching about God of Gregoras is very reminiscent of the Sabellian (cf.: Balfour D. Palamas’ Reply...). This line of struggle against essentialism and scholasticism, characteristic, in particular, of Latin theology of that time, will then be continued by St. Mark of Ephesus. That is, a message, although grammatically this word can also refer to perception. The first translation is preferable, since we are talking here about two stages of a person’s communication with God, of which the second is sacred and perfects the first. Wed. at Rev. Nikephoros: “So let us fight, brothers, according to our strength, and the Lord will help [us] according to the abundance of His mercy” (Nicephori Monachi Tractatus de sobrietate // PG. 147. 956B). Τὸ παθητικόν is translated somewhat one-sidedly in Latin - “concupiscentium”, which means “lustful”. In fact, what is obviously meant is the unification of all the lower, unreasonable forces of the soul - in their opposition to reason. Here the unity of the processes of purification and self-gathering of the mind and attracting illumination from above to it, forming - respectively - the second and third stages of spiritual work, is clearly shown. Wed: 225C. (1120Α). Wed. this formulation with the one we encountered at the beginning of the paragraph: τὸ ἐνιαῖον τοῦ νοῦ γένηται τρισσόν, μένον ἑνιαῖον (1117С). The difference is only in the collateral. τήρησίς ἐστιν. The term is used in a similar context by St. Nicephorus the Hesychast, cf.: ἡ τοῦ νοὸς τήρησις (Ntcephori Monachi Tractatus de sobrietate... 952A); cf.: ἡ τοῦ νοὸς φυλακή (953Α). The need to “return to oneself” [πρὸς ἑαυτοὺς... ἐπανέλθωμεν, ἢ μᾶλλον εἰσέλθωμεν] is said in the same place, in 947A. Literally - “twisted around him (συνεπτυγμένης).” Literally – “svitii, coagulation (τῇ ... συνελίξει).” Palamas here plays on the words χρηστός (“good, kind”) and Χριστός. The last part of the phrase looks like this: ... ὅτι Χριστὸς ὁ Κύριος. Translated according to meaning. The verb ὑπανέχω is absent in the dictionaries of Dvoretsky, Lamp, and Liddell-Scott. Translation option – “strengthen (εὐδυναμοῦσι) in communication...”. This refers to the Jesus Prayer. Compare: Cyprian (Kern), archimandrite. Anthropology... P. 419; Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 199; Mantzarides G.I. The Deification of Man, P. 80,87,89; Rigo A. La Preghiera di Gesù... P. 272; Makarov D. I. The teachings of Gregory Palamas on the purification of man...; etc. A very important place, which directly states that the purification of the ascetic’s mind by unceasing prayer is followed by illumination by the light of God. That is, a monk, driven by conceit, falls into delusion, moving away from the knowledge of his own essence, which is what St. says further. Gregory Palamas. The connection between prayer and contemplation is reflected in a number of monuments of the Athonite hesychast tradition, and above all in the works of St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia and Palamas himself. See Ch. 2. 7–8.