Глава вторая. Антропологические воззрения св. Григория Паламы

Palamas's anthropology sums up the previous development of patristic thought. The idea of ​​man’s high place in the universe and his high destiny is organically intertwined in it with a warning against excessive admiration for the external, material and bodily aspects of human existence (which leads to seduction and loss of orientation towards the spiritual First Cause, which alone, as we know, exists and is revealed to people as the One in need). The emphasis is on the inner - spiritual and organic - beauty of a person, inextricably linked with spiritual activity (or asceticism) in the unity of its practical and theoretical levels. Only thanks to this does a person rise above the created world and become like the Creator. A modern, unbiased reading of the spiritual and, in the part that interests us, the preaching heritage of St. Gregory Palamas suggests considering it in at least three mutually intersecting contexts. The first of them forms contemporary Byzantine theology to Palamas, the chronological scope of which we limit (without much violence to the course of events) to the last decades of the 13th - mid-15th centuries. (from Nikephoros Blemmides to St. Gennadius Scholarius). The second is hesychast theology, or, more precisely, the Athonite stage in its development, which opens with such monuments of spiritual writing as the “Epistle to the Monks” (apparently, the 10th century) and the anonymous treatise “The Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention,” to which we will have to repeatedly refer in the future. This also includes the works of Sts. Nikephoros the Solitary, Theoliptus of Philadelphia, Gregory the Sinaite and some other authors. It is obvious that the second context represents a natural (and necessary) expansion of the first: without understanding the Athonite origins of the late Byzantine hesychast tradition, which was colored with the fruits of its spiritual ascent and rise in the XIII-XIV centuries. Byzantine and Eastern European theology of that time, it is impossible to adequately comprehend the ideas of St. Gregory Palamas and their influence on the spiritual situation of the era. Finally, the third context is formed by the general set of anthropological views of the Byzantine and early Christian Fathers of the Church (including those set forth in anonymous monuments - for example, patericon and apothegma of the elders of the desert), which is part of the main line of patristic theology. Without any systematic consideration of this totality, one cannot hope to comprehend with due depth the specifics of the anthropological teaching of St. Gregory Palamas, its comprehensiveness and traditionality, fidelity to Church Tradition, as well as the new that the message about man proclaimed by Palamas brings with it, consonant (as Meyendorff noted) with our turbulent times 702. The author apologizes in advance to the reader for the fact that he only partially covers this context; however, the deep and organic connection of Palamas’s teaching with Church Tradition, no longer disputed by anyone these days, is revealed in a number of works (we will only mention Archbishop Vasily Krivoshein, L. K. Kontos, G. I. Mantzaridis, A. de Halleux, J. Lizon, etc.). Of course, the above does not relieve us of responsibility for all inaccuracies and misunderstandings that may appear on subsequent pages. We will consider, based on the data of the homily, the following basic questions: the nature of man and his position in the world; the main components of this nature and their current state (after the Fall); spiritual work and its stages; the doctrine of passions and virtues; the doctrine of the eschatological finale of history (in connection with the history of salvation). Understood in the dialectically inextricable unity of the named components, their interrelations and mutual transitions, anthropology turns out to be the deep nerve and, moreover, the core of Palamas’ speculations, as they were reflected in the homilies. Without taking it into account, it is impossible to understand either the socio-political and historical thoughts of the author scattered throughout the text of the homilies, or the truly outstanding role that he played in the spiritual and social life of his time. § 1. The creation of man and its purpose The idea of the harmony and greatness of man associated with his royal position in the world is repeatedly varied by Palamas. Here is what the Archbishop of Thessalonica says on this matter in the Twenty-sixth Homilia: “The Creator and Lord of all, who created everything from non-existence with goodness, after all - according to the unspeakable and inconceivable wealth of His wisdom and kindness - mysteriously produced (ἀπειργάσατο) man, in one small creature (πλάσμα) collecting and, as it were, summing up the whole work of His creation ( συγκεφαλαιωσάμενος τὴν ἅπασαν κτίσιν ). Therefore, He created (ἐδημιούργησε) him later than everyone else, participating in both worlds and both worlds, that is, this (visible) and invisible, decorating (ἐπικοσμοῦντα)” (332C) 703. In this description, in addition to expressing the traditional patristic thought of man as the crown of the created world, precisely because of his calling to this role and created by the latter 704, the researcher’s attention is drawn to the variety of lexical means that Palamas uses to give the picture he creates semantic capacity and depth; At the same time, in the “anthropic context”, semantically more elevated terms are often used, which in itself indicates the importance of the human topic. So, if Palamas calls God both the Master (τεχνίτης) and the Beautiful Artist (ἀριστοτέχνης) (80D), then in the case under consideration the definition of “Creator” (ποιητής) is used, moreover expanded to the extremely sublime the title “Creator and Lord of all things” (ὁ τῶν ἁπάντων ποιητὴς καὶ Δεσπότης [sic apud J.–P. Migne]). Palamas consciously mobilizes the palette of expressive means of language at his disposal in order to highlight with maximum intensity the grandeur and solemnity of the topic in the minds of the listener and reader. The major tone, ascending upward, can reach its apogee: man, says Palamas, is such a work (ἔργον) of the Master that was awarded special advice about him 705, and his very creation sums up the work of the creation of the universe. God combined in man the sensual and intellectual natures (αἴσθησίν τε καὶ νοῦν), and also put a particle of His grace into him, creating him in His image and likeness; therefore man is the greatest of creatures. Moreover, it is the only creature on earth capable of knowing God (γνωστικὸν ἑαντοῦ ζῶον) (221C). As we will see, Palamas will pay special attention to the last motive, systematically approaching it from various sides (seeing/seeing God; striving and approaching Him; imitation and inheritance of the Creator). The ability to know God is directly related to the creation of man - especially before other creatures - in the image and likeness of God 706. “... the nature of man,” says the saint, “was created above all creatures (παρὰ πάντα τὰ κτίσματα) in the image of God” (204A). Man was given special care, and even angels were created to serve him. But let us let the saint himself tell us about this. The homilies contain two fairly detailed accounts of the creation of man. Both logically and chronologically it will be more convenient to first dwell on the first of them, contained in the Sixth Homilia. Here is the text that interests us: “This is how something was brought into existence (παρήχθη), the first of those existing in creation (πρῶτόν τι τῶν ὄντων ἐν τῇ κτίσει), following first - something else, and then - something else, and [so] on; and after all - man. He was awarded greater honor and care from God - both before being created and after creation (τὴν πλάσιν), so that this sensory world arose for him - [and] for his sake, and the Kingdom of Heaven from the very creation of the world (εὐθὺς ἀπὸ καταβολῆς κόσμου) was prepared for him - [and] before him, and the advice about him preceded [his creation], and [he] was created by the hand of God and in the image of God, and not everything [in his nature] received [he] from this matter and from this world, subject to sense (τοῦ κατ’ αἴσθησιν κόσμου), like other living beings, but only the body; while the soul is from the supra-mundane, or rather from God Himself, through an ineffable inspiration (ἐμφυσήματος), as something great and wonderful, surpassing everything, looking at everything and overseeing everything, cognizing God and at the same time best pointing [to Him] (Θεοῦ a work of absolute perfection by an Artist ( τῆς ὑπερανῳκισμένης τοῦ τεχνίτου μεγαλειότητας )” (81BC). When reading these words and in the course of subsequent reflection on them, it is difficult to rid ourselves of the impression that before us is a justification of man and the human in him, produced from the point of view of the absolute goals of his life - goals, the achievement of which was largely facilitated by the unique and incomparable conditions of his existence. Here is how Palamas writes about it: “Therefore, [he] had his residence in Paradise, which was planted by God in an equally excellent manner (ἐξαιρέτως), and enjoyed in it the vision of God and conversations with God face to face (αὐτοπροσώπον), and received there from God advice and commandment regarding fasting, which appropriate in that place - so that, adhering to it and preserving it, tirelessly remain immortal and carefree for eternity” (Ibid.). This theme of Adam’s bliss, lost as a result of the Fall, but which can be found again, and to an even greater extent - the theme of seeing God and standing before Him face to face - will run like a red thread through Palamas’ anthropology, determining much of it. No matter how sharply and sometimes piercingly aptly the Archbishop of Thessaloniki condemned the dark sides of human nature, all kinds of deviations and miasmas in the human soul and behavior, he never forgot about the original purpose of human nature and the high path prepared for man. The greatness of human nature, according to Palamas, stems precisely from the fact that God put His image into it and thereby commanded and made communion with God possible for people. This gave him reason to say that God “... created everything visible and invisible for the sake of man (διὰ τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἀπειργάσατο). After all, not [only] heaven and earth, water, air and fire, as well as everything that [is] contained in them, [that is] various types of animals and plants, which it is impossible for us [and] to list in order (κατὰ μέρος), but even the diverse and countless myriads (πλήθη) of angels [God] created for the sake of man ( διὰ τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἀπειργάσατο ...” (449C). The creation of man is described in almost the same terms in the Fourth Homily: God “...not only in the image, but also in His likeness created (ἀπειργάσατο) [this] living being - man, so that [he] in due time could enter (χωρῆσαι) into the splendor of the Kingdom of God, into the bliss of the inheritance God, to the perfection of the blessing of the Father on high, by whom all things visible and invisible were created...” (53D–56A). Here, too, the distinctiveness of man among other creatures is associated with the fact that he will - along with the angels - take a special, royal place in the eschatological future (we still have to talk about this topic). The theme of the image of God in man, thanks to the revelation of which it becomes possible to occupy this place, runs like a red thread through the corpus of homilies. Let Palamas’ words from the beginning of the First Homily (1A) serve as proof of this: “We are brothers to each other, since we all come from one Adam, being created (γεγονότες) in the image of God...” The above words breathe faith in the historical mission of man, in his calling to be a worshiper of God, a secret man of the Holy Trinity and, at the same time, a producer of good (“a wise and good gardener”) on this earth, which is emphasized by the repeated repetition of target formulas and the commonality of means of expression: God produced (ἀπειργάσατο) man (or: produced something for the sake of man) so that man would be worthy salvation and entered the Kingdom of God... Moreover: “... and He Himself became man for our sake” (449D) - we are, of course, talking about the Incarnation (cf.: 33B; 36CD; 52A; etc.). The interweaving of anthropological and Christological motifs, so characteristic of Palamas’s anthropology, is far from accidental: not a single Christian teaching about the life and historical path of man, if it wants to be consistently Christian, can do without such a combination. And this pairing is usually understood not as something static, not as some kind of mechanical given, but as the acquisition of a new spiritual and physical state - and the path leading a person to a new life; the path on which a person can and must (in order to become called) respond to the Divine call: “So,” writes St. Ignatius of Antioch to the Ephesians, - it is fitting to glorify Jesus Christ in every possible way, who glorified you τὸν δοξάσαντα ὑμᾶς), so that, having been established in one obedience, obeying the bishop and the college of elders (τῷ πρεσβυτερίῳ), be sanctified in everything (κατὰ πάντα ἦτε ἡγιασμένοι )" 707: the fullness of glorifying God with one’s labors and deeds - in subordination to the bishop and elders - is unambiguously linked by the elder with the fullness of sanctification. We can say that already here, in essence, the classical principle of patristic soteriology is formulated: what is not perceived is not deified... There is no need to say that St. Gregory Palamas lived and thought entirely within the framework of this tradition... As we see, for him the idea of ​​direct personal communication with God is key in anthropology. Already due to the circumstances of his creation and his position in the world, man, if he does not betray his destiny, cannot help but strive for God. Palamas not only experiences spiritual triumph on this occasion, but also seeks to explain the reasons that move a person towards the ultimate goal. How did God create man, so that he never ceases to strive for Him unless he betrays his destiny? “God,” Palamas answers this and similar questions, “making (πλάττων) man autocratic (αὐτεξούσιον) 708, honored him with great (μεγάλης) care, so that [he] would incline not to evil, but to good, having properly disposed of free will (τῷ αὐτεξονσίῳ). Therefore, from the very beginning He creates him in His image and likeness 709 so that, looking at the good prototype (τὸ ἀρχέτυπον ἀγαθὸν), he does not shy away from this goodness (τῆς ἀγαθότητας), a God, for His part (πάλιν), and in the future deservedly showed him, as His image, the abundance of His kindness (πλουσίαν ... τὴν ... χρηστότητα) - more than the rest of the creatures created by Him" (449B) 710 . Let us recall Palamas’ earlier definition of man as “a work of absolute perfection of the Artist” (81C) in order to properly appreciate the love for man that spiritualizes these words. A distinctive feature of the image of God in man (we have yet to talk about others) - free will given by God - is immediately defined as a gift of the abundant goodness of the Creator 711. Freedom is not something fulfilled and complete. On the contrary, the highest gift of God’s goodness was to give a person the opportunity to flow to God himself, without forcing or pushing him. God was waiting for an answer from man - an answer at least to some extent commensurate with the goodness and generosity that He freely showed to man. Palamas continues his speech about this: “Thanks to the abundance [of generosity], God, again, encourages him (i.e., man. - D.M.) [to show] through imitation (διὰ μιμήσεως) reciprocal kindness, as far as it is in his power (πρὸς τὴν σύμμετρον αὐτῷ καὶ κατάλληλον ἀγαθότητα ). After all, it is possible for a person to be good, in the image of the Creator, thanks to imitation (ἐκ τῆς ... μιμήσεως) Him; but it is impossible for any man to be as good as God. So, realize the abundance and magnitude of God’s gifts (τῶν ... χαρισμάτων) to us, as well as how He clearly presents Himself to us as a model of good deeds 712” (449BC). We will come across the idea of ​​imitation and becoming like God through doing good deeds, coupled with faith, more than once on the pages of the homilies (132C, 161B, 277C; etc.). What is important here is the very idea of ​​the reciprocity of God's gift and call - and the free response to this call on the part of man. Man must freely choose to submit to the Supreme; but this will be the highest freedom (being in goodness). Paradox? Yes, but it lies at the basis of Christian wisdom as a whole (going back to the words of the Savior: “...he who has lost his life for My sake will save it” [Matthew 10:39]) and explains a lot about it. From this kind of “paradoxes” (more precisely, phenomena that seem such only to an external observer) a holistic and internally harmonious idea of ​​history is formed as a divine-human process, which is based on the synergy of Providence and human will. Awareness of this is necessary if we want to penetrate into the core of Palamas’s thought - where the personal and concretely personal merges with the historical, with the voice of Tradition, as well as with those coming from above, for when comprehending and expressing axioms of this kind we have to recognize a fair amount of assistance from grace (how can we not remember the “ἐξαιρέτως” spoken by Palamas!) 713. But the abundance of God’s gifts to people noted by Palamas not only does not give reason for pride, but, on the contrary, calls for moderation and humility. The greatest abundance of heavenly and earthly gifts turns out to be associated with a call for maximum sobriety and modesty in assessing one’s strengths and the greatness generated by them. About this restraint and modesty demanded of us, largely connected with the limitations of our bodily existence, Palamas reminds the listener and reader: “How different are we from ants? Isn’t this our composition (τὸ ... φύραμα), that is, the body, made up of the same [elements]?” (516D). Palamas antinomically - or rather, dialectically - combines when describing a person the motives of greatness - and moderation, sublimity - and modesty, enthusiasm - and realism (which does not lose in enthusiasm itself), which once again proves the depth and organic nature of his assimilation of the biblical-patristic tradition. And again, in this matter, St. is closest to the teacher of silence. Gregory of Nyssa, an excerpt from whose work would be useful to cite here: “And they said that man is a small world (μικρὸν ... κόσμον), composed of the same elements as everything. But while praising human nature with this loud name, they themselves did not notice that they honored man with the differences (idioms) of a mosquito and a mouse. After all, a mosquito and a mouse are a fusion of the same four, because in each of the creatures, along with animate ones, they are necessarily seen in greater or lesser proportion, because without them nothing in nature can be composed of feeling. What is great in this - to honor man as the distinctive sign and likeness of the world? And this is when the heavens pass away, the earth changes, and all their contents pass away with them, when what they contain passes away?” 714 So, from the point of view of both Gregori, it is not appropriate for a person to boast of his external data (athletic physique, youth, beauty, gait, etc.). Man is a great mystery. And only by delving into the inner and hidden – the spiritual – in him, can one come closer not only to solving, but even simply to an adequate awareness of this mystery. And before we start talking about spiritual work - or, according to St. Gregory Palamas, an ascetic, it is necessary to clarify a more general question: how did the saint imagine the structure of human nature, the interaction and mutual coordination of its spiritual, mental, bodily levels, as well as the role and functions of its various components (mind, soul, body) after the Fall? Having understood the static aspect of human existence, it will be possible to talk about its dynamics. § 2. Composition and structure of human nature Man appears in Palamas's interpretation as a multi-level and multi-dimensional being. The attention to the spiritual side of human nature developed by the saint as a result of many years of practice of asceticism and intelligent work (and no serious researcher doubts that Palamas’s anthropology is experimental, growing from the experience of Christian asceticism in the Holy Spirit and based on this experience) 715 does not mean neglect of the bodily aspect of human existence. On the contrary, according to Palamas, the human soul has from God a life-giving spirit, with the help of which it supports the existence of the associated bodies with it, while the angels, being incorporeal, did not receive this life-giving ability from the Almighty 716. And Palamas especially emphasizes the love of the human soul for the body it revives: “... the soul, [following the law of] nature, nourishes... such a strong love affection (τοσοῦτο... ἐρασμίαν... συνάφειαν) to the body associated with it, which does not want to leave it - and will not leave it at all, unless [it] is subjected to force from the outside, [associated] with a particularly serious illness or injury (πληγῆς)" 717. This love itself acts as a manifestation of the spiritual nature of man: according to Palamas, the human spirit “... gives life to the body associated with the soul, thanks to which it is revealed (in the original - an impersonal construction. - D. M.) to those who understand that the human spirit is intelligent love (νοερός ... ἔρως)" 718. The importance of the following words cannot be overestimated. It is in them that Palamas reveals and explains the most important position for his anthropology - the trinity of the image of God in man. “For what reason,” asks Palamas in the Homily for Epiphany, “during the creation and re-creation of man, the mystery of the Holy Trinity appears? Not only because he is the only one on earth who is the secret one and her admirer, but also because he is the only one in Her image” 719. Further disclosure of this trichotomism is carried out in two ways. The first is the one we encounter in the “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters,” where Palamas teaches about the trinity of the spiritual component of human nature: mind – word – spirit. At the same time, Palamas expressed the doctrine of the complete interpenetration (perichorisis) of these aspects of human nature - the path followed by later Byzantine theology (in particular, Theophan of Nicea, in whom the term itself is found - in a soteriological context 720): the spirit, says the saint, “... [comes] from the mind and the word (ἐκ τοῦ νοῦ ἐστι καὶ τοῦ λόγου ἐστι ), abides in the mind and the word and - [at the same time] - has both the word and the mind in itself” 721. It is extremely important to establish where this speculation comes from, as well as the Trinitarian analogy implemented here by Palamas. Although the idea that the Son is the mind (νοῦς) of the Father is found among apologists (for example, Athenagoras and St. Theophilus of Antioch 722), traditionally the literature does not indicate any parallels to the teaching of Palamas closer to St. Photius 723. At the same time, some theologians of the Middle Byzantine period (XII century) attract attention, of which we should especially point out Eustratius of Nicea and Nicetas of Maronea, who closely followed him in solving the problems of Trinitarian theology, who was Metropolitan of Thessalonica around 1133 (which in itself is not accidental and allows us to think about the possible reading of his works by Palamas). The fact is that in the works of the named authors the same trinitarian-anthropological analogy is found (Father - mind, Son - word, Spirit - spirit), and even some expressions of Eustratius and Nikita, who quotes him, come very close to those that we encountered in Palamas; this, in particular, concerns the characterization of the Spirit as an outgoing καὶ ἐκ τοῦ νοῦ (cf. Palamas) 724. This analogy is also found in one of the anti-Latin treatises of St. Nicholas of Mefonsky 725. And from here there is a direct line to Nikephoros Blemmydes, St. Gregory of Cyprus and - ultimately - to St. Gregory Palamas 726. After him, which is quite natural, the analogy that interests us is found in the “Syllogical Chapters against the Latins” of St. Mark of Ephesus, who, as is known, was the most prominent Palamite 727: “And the very mind (νοῦς) in us... gives birth to the word and drives out the spirit; one - as if a messenger of his movements and thoughts, the other - as the life-giving and mover of the body and the revealer and announcer of the word" 728. There is no subordination in this: “... the word and the spirit simultaneously in relation to each other come from the mind...” 729 At the same time, the spirit, as already noted, is understood by Palamas as the love of the mind - the highest part of the soul 730 - for the word generated by it (thinking is carried out in words) and knowledge, as well as for the body. For Palamas it was important to emphasize the integrity and harmony of human nature achieved in this way, which reflects the harmony of the Creator and the goodness that He bestowed on man during creation (cf. § 1). Later, this analogy is found in such a purely dogmatic work as the “Brief Exposition of the Christian Faith”, compiled by St. Gennady Scholarius at the request of Sultan Mehmed II in 1455 or 1456. 731: obviously, subsequent Palamites perceived it as an organic and integral part of Tradition 732. The second way is to understand the entirety of human nature as reflecting the trinity; in the already mentioned homily on the Epiphany, Palamas speaks precisely in favor of this version. Here he says that man has a mind, a spirit and a body, which receives life from the spirit 733. In another case, instead of the spirit in the threefold formula, the soul is mentioned 734. St. Gregory did not strictly separate the realms of spirit and soul; Among his statements the following is found: “The reason for love for God is love for our spirit, that is, soul” (416B). Without taking into account this “integrative” tendency when describing human nature and the human path, we will not be able to understand the specifics of the anthropological views of the teacher of silence. On the other hand, we should not forget about the old and familiar opposition of νοῦς and διάνοια reflected in the works of Palamas (we further translate as “mind” and “reason”; cf. the translation of the last word by R. E. Sinkevich as “the discursive intellect” 735), as well as about the organic - through the patristic tradition and direct study Aristotelian texts - the mastery by the teacher of silence of the ancient philosophical concept of three (in Plato's) and four (in Aristotle's version, which was accepted by Palamas) powers of the soul - lustful, irritable, nourishing and rational, which guides human behavior and, being identified with the mind, is denoted by the well-known term τὸ ἡγεμονικόν - “imperious” or “commanding” principle. Taking into account all that has been said, it becomes clear that the application of the old and familiar definitions of dichotomism and trichotomism to the anthropological teaching of Palamas is to a certain extent arbitrary and arbitrary: in Palamas’ teaching this opposition itself is removed, although on a superficial level both members of the opposition exist. The results of this quick introductory overview can be summarized in the following table: Moreover, layers (or components) 2–7, generally speaking, refer to the soul, which, according to Palamas, is a multi-membered living being (πολνμελοῦς οὔσης – 108C), possessing reason and the ability to choose (γνώμη is a very ambiguous term; it will be discussed later); elements 5–7 precisely refer to the rational principle of the soul, which in its entirety is designated as ἡγεμονικόν. Finally, elements 5–6 correspond to the level of reason (ἡ διάνοια), or (with some shift) “practical reason”, with the help of which a person navigates the world at the level of the laws of Aristotelian logic and three dimensions; while mystical connotations, suggesting the possibility of direct communication with God as the Supreme Being, are embedded in the term (and the phenomenon behind it) νοῦς, which is precisely (in its original purpose) the organ of such communication. Therefore, for Palamas’ anthropology, generally speaking, both designations are valid - it all depends on which oppositions between the seven components of human nature we consider to be dominant (we will say a few words about how he himself believed): if we consider the most important opposition 1 - (2-7), then Palamas’ anthropology can be characterized as having features of dichotomism; if we single out 1 – (2–4) – (5–7) as the main contradiction, then we describe Palamas’ anthropology as marked by trichotomism. But it is important to remember that for Palamas the idea that is more capacious and meaningful is not about distinctions, but about the integrity and inseparability of the soul as a living being, which “embraces and contains within itself (συνέχουσά τε καὶ περιέχουσα)” the body (260A). The soul for Palamas is the simple beginning of the vital activity of the body, its entelechy 736. As Palamas repeatedly points out, the soul has its being (τὴν ὕπαρξιν) (196A) from the act of divine inspiration from above (cf. § 1), but “not from the addition [of elements] (μηδ’ ἐκ συνθέσεως)” (Ibid.). And just as God is Spirit, the main part of the soul (and human nature in general) turns out to be the innate mind, or the upper part of our nature (ἐν τῷ καθ’ ἡμᾶς ... ὑπερώῳ τῷ νῷ) (296D) 737. The mind, concentrated in itself, is our main “possession and wealth (οὐσία καὶ περιουσία)” (40B). As a generalization of this - static - aspect of his anthropology, Palamas uses in the homilies the following formula, which appears twice practically without changes: “Man is twofold - external, that is, the body, and our internal man, namely the soul” (197C; cf.: 325D–328A) 738. This phrase is simple enough to be the result of deliberate auto-quotation, but still, doesn’t such a coincidence suggest an idea (which we will have to deal with) about the careful author’s finishing of the homilies by Palamas? And with all this, he can hardly be considered (at least in resolving the question of the image of God in man) as a supporter of conscious and fundamental dichotomism: after all, if anything in man is created in the image of God, then it is not so much the soul as a whole, but the spirit (a little higher we talked about the mind in a similar context): “God,” testifies the teacher of silence in the same (!) Eleventh homily, from which the previous quotation was taken, “is Spirit, absolute Goodness (αὐτοαγαθότης) and Virtue, and in His image and likeness our spirit also exists (τὸ πνεῦμά ἐστι τὸ ἡμέτερον)” (125A). As we see, the image is associated with Palamas not so much with any one component of human nature, nor with the soul as a whole, but with the totality of the spiritual principles of human nature. From here naturally (as we will try to show below) follows the idea of ​​the value of spiritual work, which includes (or at least allows) scientific and artistic-aesthetic pursuits in the initial stages. Palamas very highly valued the mind, reason, the logos principle in man, which is evident from the definition of the soul he repeatedly gave as rational (λογική) 739, respectively, and man as a whole is characterized by him as a rational nature (τῆς λογικῆς ἡμῶν φύσεως – 36C). And if in some places of his homilies Palamas can say that those who pray cry out to God “with all their soul and reason (ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς καὶ διανοίας)” (124Α), then reason is in no way conceived by him as something isolated from the soul, but this very emphasis is intended to emphasize its special significance: after all, a little earlier in the same Tenth Homily, the teacher of silence says that “... the roof in us is the rational part of the soul (τὸ λογιστικὸν τῆς ψυχῆς)” (120D). Elsewhere this part of our nature is called τῷ λογικῷ τῆς καθ’ ἡμᾶς ψυχῆς (517A); then τὸ λογιστικὸν τῆς ψυχῆς will be more accurately translated as “the thinking part of the soul” (the word “reason” is better avoided, because in Palamas, like in Theoliptus of Philadelphia, it is strongly associated with διάνοια). From what has been said, it becomes obvious that Palamas attaches great importance to the spiritual, intellectual, rational and mental activity of man. This is far from accidental, since Palamas attaches great importance to the rational and creative activity of man in this world (see Chapter 3); in addition (and this is the main thing), reason, understanding, and the ability to think are one of the two fundamental features of the image of God in man, distinguishing man from the created world and likening him to the Creator. It is through the mind (and not through affects, emotions, intuition, etc.) that a person knows God (this position is documented in the final part of the chapter). And since of all creation only angels and man are capable of knowing God and direct communication with Him, it becomes clear that “...for the sake of this rational nature everything else arose...” (517C) 740. Judging by the context, we are talking about angels and man. What makes a person so special? What can St. Gregory Palamas - as a seer of souls - tell us about its structure and existential path? We deliberately refrain from discussing in detail a topic of great importance, but already covered in historiography (especially in the works of Meyendorff 741) - the understanding of St. Gregory Palamas of the body and corporeality. The saint’s “biblical anthropology” not only allows, but also affirms as one of its necessary prerequisites the inclusion of the body in the image of God: our flesh, says the archbishop, “... has... such closeness with God (τοσοῦτον... τὸ συγγενὲς πρὸς Θεὸν), that she could even unite (συνελθεῖν) with Him into one hypostasis (προς μίαν υπό ο τασιν)..." (204A). In the Eucharist, Christ becomes σύσσωμος - “co-corporeal” with every believer 742. In the Forty-third homily - essentially, the Encomia of St. Demetrius of Thessalonica - it is especially noted that the saint “... did everything to remain virgin both in body and soul, and thanks to him (i.e., the body. - D. M.) to acquire a dwelling (τὸ πολίτευμα ... ἔχειν) in heaven, and to get closer to the incorporeal along with the body, not at all [to them] without yielding ( τοῖς ἀσωμάτοις ἐξ ἐφάμιλλου χωρεῖν μετὰ σώματος )....” (540ΑΒ). This description can serve as an illustration of the universal position of Christian asceticism, expressed by one of the spiritual ancestors of the Athonite hesychasts and St. Gregory Palamas - Rev. Hesychius of Sinai 743: “... every virtue is acquired by both soul and body. For both the soul and the body are a creation (κτίσμα) of God...” 744 Therefore, it is important for Palamas to show the participation of both human natures in the supernatural and supernatural, that is, in grace (the acquisition of which and - through it - deification is the main goal of the feat of the saints, about which cf. at least St. Seraphim of Sarov) 745. In the entire existential appearance and structure of man - as in integral integrity - the goodness and wisdom of the Creator is revealed. But if the body is pacified and spiritualized by the inner strength of the human spirit with the assistance of grace, then the soul is incorporeal. “Moreover, the soul, containing [by its power] the body with which it was created 746, is located at any point of it - but not as in space 747 and not as encompassed [by something], but as containing and embracing (συνέχουσά τε καὶ περιέχουσα) body, having this also in the image of God” (260AV). Palamas, like many Fathers, shares Plato’s idea that the soul has its own moving principle within itself, thanks to which it sets the body in motion (Phaedr. 245cd) 748. The soul is a simple being that does not die after the death of a person, “for it does not have existence from the addition [of elements] (μηδ’ ἐκ συνθέσεως ἔχει τὴν ὕπαρξιν)” (196Α). Therefore, it is the cause of movement both of itself and of the human body as a whole; She received this property from divine inspiration. And on the contrary, every complex - for folded (ἐκ συνθέσεως) - existence inevitably comes to an end - due to the disintegration of its constituent elements; a thought well known since the time of St. Gregory the Theologian 749, to whom, apparently, Palamas was guided. This direction of thought is one of the reasons that when describing the soul, the dynamic aspect of its existence for Palamas turns out to be more important than the substantial one. At the same time, he distinguishes four principles (“members” - μέλη) of the soul: nourishing (Aristotelian term), appetitive, irritable and rational (τὸ θρεπτικὸν, τὸ ἐπιθυμητικὸν, τὸ θυμικόν τε καὶ λογιστικὸν ) (108C). The last three principles were highlighted by Plato, whose corresponding teaching found wide reception in patristic literature, including in the Old Russian Epistle of Metropolitan Nikephoros! (1104–1121) 750. About the first, Aristotle himself does not say anything definite: “The soul apparently has in itself some part with the help of which we are nourished and which we call nourishing” (Eth. M. 1185a 15; cf.: Eth. Nicom. 1102b 11; 1144a 10) 751. This part of the soul has no special virtue; in the homilies of Palamas we will no longer find mention of her. In this state of affairs, we can only repeat our earlier assumption 752 that if irritable and concupiscible forces are the locus of the generation of passions (apparently, invisible and visible, respectively), then the nutritional principle provides energetic support to the passionate impulses and movements of the human heart (τὰ κινήματα τῆς ... καρδίας – 280V). This seems all the more plausible since the picture of the human soul created by Palamas is highly dynamic: it pays special attention to the abilities of the mind and soul, as well as to such realities as free will, volition and conscience, which obviously involve a dynamic and energetic interpretation. Palamas's anthropology least of all resembles something frozen. The man in the image of the saint is all dynamic, in motion, on the move. He must, relying on the will of God, make the final choice between good, which is eternal, and evil, which is immaterial, and, steadily following this choice, make his way in the world. In order to correctly determine what is good and what is evil, a person has an innate advisor - reason (ὁ νοῦς). And in order to follow the good in practice, realizing it in one’s life, one must properly manage free will (τὸ αὐτεξούσιον), which, along with reason, refers to the essential features of the soul-spiritual nature of man, created in the image of God. According to the saint, reason and free will are closely related to each other: only rational nature is autocratic (ἡ λογικὴ μόνη φύσις τὸ αὐτεξούσιον ἔχουσα – 288B); here Palamas explains that by rational nature we must understand immaterial angels and people clothed in matter (ἐνύλων) (Ibid. C). It is important that in the subsequent Palamite tradition it is the mind that is called autocratic 753. Therefore, let us consider, following the logic of Palamas himself, and at the same time his followers, the saint’s ideas about the human mind. This question is one of the most pressing for St. Gregory. God gave us cognitive power (τῆς ... γνωστικῆς δυνάμεως – 97B). But what (more precisely, who) should a person first of all know, if not God? This is where the praise for the human mind comes from: “How much better than heaven is the human mind (ὁ ἀνθρώπινος νοῦς), which, being the image of God (εἰκών ... Θεοῦ), knows God (Θεὸν οἶδε ) and, the only one in the world (μόνος τῶν ἐγκοσμίων), if he desires [that], he becomes [God], lifting up the humble body with him (cf.: 1 Cor. 15:44-48)! (333A). The soul in a healthy state looks at God and sees God: “... looking with the soul at God (τῇ δὲ ψυχῇ πρὸς τὸν Θεὸν βλέποντες), we will ask Him for heavenly [gifts]” (336C). This function is performed by special “smart eyes” ( τῶν νοητῶν ὥφθαλμῶ ν – 380V; cf. mention of τῶν κατὰ ψυχὴν ὥφθαλμῶν 754 in 380С); more often they are mentioned in the singular and are called “the eye of reason” ( τὸ ὄμμα τῆς διανοίας – 284АВ, 285А, 437В; τὸ τῆς διανοίας ὄμμα – 321C, 473B), but the plural also occurs - in a characteristic and very important context, which must be quoted: “...we can constantly look at Him with the eyes of reason (τοῖς τῆς διανοίας ὄμμασιν), if we remain in sobriety (εἰ νήφομεν) - and not only look at it, but also derive great benefits from it for yourself” (304B). The category of sobriety is very important - it indicates the connection between the teachings of Palamas and the asceticism of the Athonite hesychasts, including St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia. We'll get into this later; Now let us note only the “noological” (in the context of the doctrine of the mind) significance of these words and the ideas reflected in them, based on prayer practice and rooted in the corresponding way of life. By directing our minds towards God, Palamas says a little further (305B), we can have our residence in heaven - “if only we remain in sobriety and direct the eye of reason (τὸ ὄμμα τῆς διανοίας) on Him who redeemed us...” (305CD). In the mind there must be unceasing care (μελέτη) for God (see: 256A; 336C; cf. subsequent analysis), thanks to which - and also by raising the heart (296B) and the soul as a whole - we achieve a transformation of the mind, and through this - of our nature as a whole. Palamas calls on the flock to direct the eyes of reason to the light of the gospel sermon (which - at this particular moment - was identified by the listeners with his sermon on the Transfiguration, from where these words are taken), “... so that this very hour (τέως) you could be transformed by the renewal of your mind (ὡς ἂν μεταμορφωθῆτε ... τῇ ἀνακαινίσει τοῦ νοὸς ἡμῶν )” (437D). So, the original function of the mind, which the ascetic strives to restore (but which, as can be seen at least from this appeal, is accessible to every believer) is to see God; and then, having realized what He commanded, turn “to this saving thought” (πρὸς τὸν σωτήριον τοῦτον λογισμὸν – 412С) and realize what is realized and comprehended. The word “thought” here seems to mean (unlike the classical definition of Evagrius 755) not the result of a demonic attack, a certain image or phantasm in the rational part of the soul, but a thought in general: a more general and universal meaning. Guided by thoughts about salvation and the truth of God, a person is free to carry out his life in accordance with the truth of God, which is why the mind is called (as among the Fathers in general) τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν τῆς ψυχῆς - “the sovereign of the soul” (369C). Palamas especially emphasizes that, no matter what work a person performs, his thought does not depend on the movements of the body and is free from them, and therefore “... can reside in other [spheres] εἶναι)" (336Β). The totality of good thoughts constitutes a person’s awareness of the will of God and the desire to be guided by it in his behavior: it seems possible to identify the concept of “thought” in this meaning with the concept of “reason,” “the rational part of the soul” in general. But the matter does not stop there. While dwelling on the moral aspect of human behavior, Palamas does not lose sight of the main activity of the mind - cognitive. It cannot be said that the corresponding statements of St. Gregory were original, but in the context of their time, in the mouth of the leader of the hesychasts, they sounded very expressive, in fact, again and again reminding the faithful that in the matter of Christian salvation any limitation is harmful - and if someone has not received the data (or impetus) to become a monk, there is no need to despair - but go into the world and do your work in the world... God, says St. Gregory, “...gave us two, or rather, diverse cognitive abilities - mind and feeling, giving us everything in between; That’s why He created each of our [abilities], aimed at knowledge and activity, twofold - or diverse” (333C; cf.: 332D; 221C) 756. We are talking about various cognitive abilities inherent in human nature and, in their ontological status, located (according to Palamas) between the mind and feeling. So, reason, mental activity, reason represent, as it were, the pinnacle, the “upper floor” of human nature: it is here that God’s illumination comes; it is this part of the soul that guides human behavior and life activity... Another fundamental pole of human nature forms feeling. And before we draw any final conclusions regarding this side of our nature, let us take a closer look at the enthusiasm with which Palamas glorifies human feeling and the diverse palette of its activities: “How much the human sense (αἴσθησις) surpasses the earth - [after all] it not only perceives (ἀντιλαμβάνεται) 757 [all] the diversity of its sizes and properties (μέτρων καὶ ποιοτήτων ποικίλων), but already in [its] awareness reached the celestial spheres (τῶν οὐρανίων ἥψατο τῇ γνώσει σφαιρῶν), discovered (ἤσθετο) various movements and comprehended the many-sided - and, presumably, multi-valued - convergence and divergence of stars and luminaries (πολυσχήμους, τάχα δὲ καὶ πολυσημάντους συνόδους ἄστρων τε καὶ ἀστέρων ἔγνω καὶ διαστάσεις), thereby bestowing the beginning of rational knowledge (ταῖς κατὰ νοῦν ἐπιστήμαις)!” (333ΑΒ) 758 . This tirade best shows that Palamas thought of feeling - and the sphere of the sensory in general - not only not in isolation from the sphere of the rational and rational-epistemological, but, on the contrary, in close and inextricable contact with this latter: feeling is justified in its existence insofar as it supplies the mind with material for comprehending the natural and supernatural foundations of life. It is also necessary for a person to have correct orientation in the world created for him by the Creator. The idea of ​​the closest connection between the spiritual and sensual elements of human nature is actively taken into account by Palamas. In the somewhat enigmatic phrase that follows the one we have just quoted, the superiority of human nature over the structure of the heavenly bodies is asserted: “At the same time, what is between heaven and earth is lower in dignity than those who consist [literally, “located at the junction, borderland”] of mind and feeling, [after all] they are identical [to each other] in terms of proportionality, but are extremely different in the mass that embraces them.” (333V). The phrase is very difficult: αἰσθήσεως ἐλάττω κατὰ τὴν ἀξίαν ἐστὶ, λόγοις ἀναλογίας ὄντα ταυτὰ, καὶ τοῖς περιέχουσιν ὄγκοις ὅτι μἄλιστα διαφέροντα. By τῶν ἐν μεθόριῳ νοῦ καὶ αἰσθήσεως we here understand people - and the meaning of the phrase (based on the explanation of Archim. Ambrose 759) we see in the following: man and the luminaries are proportionate to each other, since they are creatures, but in the general order (hierarchy) of creation, man occupies a higher place - both in accordance with God’s original plan for him, and in accordance with the development of the stages of the House of God (der Heilsgeschichte): “For to such an extent God has adorned our nature (τὴν ἡμετεραν φύσιν), as His future vestment (περιβολήν)” (Ibid.). The expression λόγοις ἀναλογίας is used by Palamas in the homilies again 760 in a somewhat similar context. Glorifying the creation of the world by God, St. Gregory says that every number is also καλὸν λίαν, as ἑαυτῷ τε καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις λόγοις ἀναλογίας ἐμπρέπων θανμασίως (“[since it is] amazingly harmonious both in itself and [thanks to] relationships of proportionality with other [numbers]”). The context of this reasoning - the doctrine of perfect numbers - has already been discussed in Chapter One. Here we may mean the proportionality of numbers with each other in the natural series in general (each subsequent one is one more than the previous one; cf. also relations like 8÷4 = 4÷2 = 2÷1, etc.), and – more specifically – properties of “perfect” numbers. In relation to a homogeneous group of objects - numbers - the expression λόγοις ἀναλογίας is quite appropriate. In the phrase that interests us, it is also appropriate, since both man and the star are creations of God. In this respect, they are identical with each other, belonging to the general class of objects - creatures, while their specific characteristics are extremely different from each other. The two-level existence of a person, located at the intersection of the spiritual and sensory worlds, determines his central position in the world. In addition, the composition of human nature from the very beginning of history anticipated the image of the union of two natures in Christ, being a distant analogy of the latter - a thought well known, in particular, to St. Anastasia Sinaita 761. This is another reason for the superiority of man. Confirming it, St. Gregory Palamas consciously and purposefully develops ideas that were included in the general fund of the patristic tradition. And it was precisely the influence on the Palamas of St. Anastasia Sinaita (together with John of Damascus and Andrew of Crete) can be traced quite clearly - in particular, in the doctrine of the Transfiguration (see below). It seems possible to extend the thesis about the presence and strength of this influence to the anthropology of the teacher of silence as a whole - in its inextricable connection with Christology and anthropology. Moreover: St. Gregory Palamas could not help but be attracted by the St. Anastasius polemics with monothelitism, since it was Orthodox dithelitism, which was developed by St. Maximus the Confessor and to the final approval of which St. made a significant contribution. Anastasius, was the dogmatic basis of Palamas’s teaching on the distinction and unity of essence and energy. It is no coincidence that in the Tomos of the Council of 1351 references are made to the works of Sts. Maximus the Confessor and Anastasius Sinaita, in which the meaning of Orthodox diphelitism is explained 762: the name Anastasius enjoyed well-deserved veneration on the Holy Mountain. Palamas adopted one of his favorite ideas, only briefly sketching it in the words quoted above. But let's return to the problem outlined above. What is the relationship between mind and feeling - or, in today's language, the rational and emotional elements in human nature? What connects these two areas and how do they interact with each other? Palamas identifies several connecting links between the sphere of pure sensuality, which is not yet aware of anything spiritual, and the region of ratio - imagination (φαντασία), opinion (δόξα) and reason, or rational thinking (διάνοια) (332D; Οἰκονόμος . Let us turn to the text of the Conversation on the Entry of the Mother of God into the Church. Here Palamas explains to us that “... the sense of sensation (αἴσθησις) is an instinctive [literally, “unreasonable”] ability (Δύναμις ... ἄλογός ἐστιν) to perceive and feel present [objects] that can be sensually perceived ( γνωστικὴ καὶ ἀντιληπτικὴ τῶν αἰσθητῶν παρόντων ). From it originates the imagination, which processes (ἐνεργεῖ) both what is perceived by it (i.e., sensation - D.M.), and absent [objects] perceived sensually (τὰ ἑαυτῆς καὶ τῶν ἀισθητῶν ἀπόντων ). This latter could be called mind (νοῦς), since it acts independently of [what it perceives] (δίχα τούτων ἐνεργεῖ) - but only “impressionable” (παθητικὸς) 763, since it is not does without intermediaries. As for opinion, one thing that receives an impulse (ὁρμωμένη) from the imagination is an unreasonable judgment (ἡ μὲν... ψῆφος ἄλογός ἐστιν); the other does not go beyond the limits of reason (ἡδ’ἀπὸτῆς διανοίας οὔ). After all, this ability is aimed at both one and the other (πρὸς γὰρ ἀμφότερα πέφυκεν ἡ ἕξις αὕτη). Thinking is always rational (Διάνοιαδὲ λογικὴ μέν ἐστιν αἰεί); passing [its stages] successively, it eventually turns into an opinion expressed in words ( ἀποτελευτῶσα ). All these [abilities] are connected [with each other] (συνειστήκασι) and act through the first organ - the psychic spirit (spiritual pneuma), [located] in the brain (τοῦ ψυχικοῦ ἐν ἐγκεφἀλῳ πνεύματος ). The mind does not have any organ (Νοῦ δὲ ὄργανον οὐδέν ἐστιν), but is a self-sufficient entity (αὐτοτελής ... οὐσία), which acts on its own, although it reduces itself ( ὑποκαταβιβάζει ἑαυτόν) to a spiritual and vain (ἀνελιγμένην) life, guided by reason (κατὰ διάνοιαν)" ( Οἰκονόμος . In this passage, Palamas consciously and specifically, as he himself says below, presented to the listener and reader his ideas about the spiritual powers of man. As we see, the difference between imagination and sensation is that it is able to perceive, imagine and process not only images of immediate perception, but also (in accordance with the past, speaking today, apperception of the subject) images of past memories stored in the “repository of sensory perceptions” mentioned below, which, using the data of modern science, one could try to associate with the activity of the right hemisphere of the brain. The imagination thus acts as a creative force to a certain extent: it has the power to process the images that come into it and produce various kinds of combinations from them; I think that this is what Palamas meant when he said that it “processes” perceptual data. The latter turn out to be “intermediaries” in the work of the imagination. It differs from pure thinking precisely in that it requires sensory images for its functioning - and thereby represents a zone directly bordering on sensuality in the composition of human nature. Opinion can either be based on images of the imagination and (indirectly) sensation-perception (and then it will be “unreasonable”), or do without them. In other words, it can rest either on representation (cf. similar reasoning in Plato’s Theaetetus) or be the result of pure abstraction, the pure activity of the understanding. As for thinking, it functions at the level of pure rationality. Nevertheless, for its development it also needs a spiritual spirit. Being in the brain, it is he who supplies energy for mental activity, which weakens without this “feeding”. And only the mind rises above all soulfulness (in the usual sense of emotional and affective manifestations, but also in the sense of the activity of pure reason, completely closed within the framework of everyday logic, “common sense” and the world of three dimensions), being an organ of purely spiritual communication and meeting with God. Imagination (τὸ φανταστικόν), in addition, is the “face (πρόσωπον)” of the soul: in it “... there is a constant seat of the energies of the senses (sensual energies - κατὰ τὰς αἰσθήσεις ἐνεργειῶν)" (920; cf.: 93A). According to Palamas, almost all the powers of the soul that he analyzed (with the exception of the mind, which, as we have already said, occupies a special position) “... are completely unreasonable and almost do not rise above the level of the sensory [world] (ἥκιστατῶν αἰσθητῶν ἀνανεούσας); opinion and thinking, although they are rational forces (λογικὰς), are still not separated from the storehouse of sensory perceptions (τοῦ ταμιείον τῶν αἰσθήσεων), that is, fantasy. Who brings them [to a working state], like an organ, a psychic spirit ( διὰ τοῦ ψυχικοῦ πνεύματος ὡς ὀργάνου τελουμένας )....” ( Οἰκονόμος . Here we have before us an empirically verified and confirmed statement of the damaged nature of fallen man: that which should be guided exclusively by the mind has fallen under the realm of the sensual... This is a fixation of the anthropological truth about man. It is introduced by Palamas into the sermon for a practical purpose: in order to indicate the path of healing... Of course, in this form, the reasoning that has passed before us also has considerable value in itself. First of all, they show us again and again that anthropological thought in late Byzantium continued to wrestle with the mystery of man, his nature and his face, reflected on the paths and destinies of humanity in this world... All this worried Palamas. His understanding of the intertwining of the spiritual and sensual in man - in all their diversity - showed again and again that the work of salvation is not the fruit of the efforts of one abstract mind, but must be the result of the involvement and transformation of all aspects of human nature. The whole person must strive towards God. At the same time, he should not abandon his efforts in this world, but elevate and ennoble (sublimate) sensuality, raising it to the level of the logos of being 764. Palamas, speaking in a purely “substantialist” aspect, well shows the inseparability of all levels and all components of human existence, the close intertwining of mental, somatic and mental processes. Let's try to present what he said in the form of a conditional table. Table 2. The structure of the mental and spiritual components of human nature according to St. Gregory Palama As can be seen from this table, the teaching of St. Gregory about man is very detailed and multifaceted; it takes into account the increased complexity of defining man and the human compared to the classical era and its naive rationalism in the field of morality. Here, the experience of the theology of the desert fathers is fully taken into account, who discovered new abysses in the human phenomenon - but also new heights... It should be recognized that Palamas’s scheme in its detail, depth and thoroughness of analysis and precision of nuance has few equals in Byzantine anthropology. Perhaps a certain analogue to it is - if we turn to the scientific layer of the latter - a somewhat schematic classification of human cognitive abilities created by Nikephoros Vlemmydes 767 . Among other things, Blemmydes identifies in the Brief Logic the same mental and spiritual forces as Palamas: αἴσθησις, φαντασία, δόξα, διάνοια and νοῦς. In a similar way, he, analyzing, finds that the last two forces are reasonable, the first two are unreasonable (ἄλογοι), and opinion is between them, being correlated with free will. Just like Palamas, relying on the Aristotelian concept of the “perceiving (or “passive”) mind,” Blemmydes interprets perception as direct contact with the object, while for the imagination this condition is not necessary: ​​it can imagine the image of an object that was once perceived, but is now absent 768 . The closeness of both authors is not surprising: in spiritual and historical terms, Blemmydes (in the aspect of his encyclopedism, as well as the philosophical - but not theological - component of his work) can be considered as one of the immediate predecessors of Theodore Metochites, under whose leadership Palamas studied Aristotle. It can be stated that if in late Byzantine psychology (the doctrine of the parts of the soul) the line prevailed: Plato -> Stoics -> Apologists -> Cappadocians -> St. John of Damascus –>... –>St. Gregory Palamas, then in the field of epistemology Aristotelian tendencies were stronger: Aristotle Nicephorus Blemmides -> Theodore Metochites -> St. Gregory Palamas. This is quite natural in view of the more applied – “phenomenological”, according to A.F. Losev 769 – nature of Aristotelianism. As is known, Stagirite distinguished between types of knowledge and opinion; an opinion about what is perceived by the senses is the same as sensory knowledge, which is included in the final premise of the inference. The second type is strictly scientific knowledge (κυρίως ἐπιστήμη); it “...is not carried away by the power of passion; passion arises when [only] sensory knowledge is present in us” (Nicom. Eth. 1147 b9–17) 770. This is very close to Palamas’s scheme being analyzed and is, apparently, its closest philosophical basis. There is no doubt that this whole scheme of distinguishing two types of opinion with varying degrees of indirectness was adopted by Aristotle. If we turn to the essence of the problem of “two opinions,” then one cannot help but notice that opinion really represents a borderline sphere: with it we move from the sphere of the sensual to the sphere of the rational. It is subject to the influences of both spheres. At its lower stages, raw sensory data, entering the psyche from the outside, begins to be processed and comprehended through reason, spoken out in words; but this is still an indistinct and unclear word, not brought to life by a deep theoretical understanding of the phenomena and processes involved. Irrational motives of behavior and activity still predominate. This - first - opinion is still too absorbed by sensuality to be able to make independent and balanced judgments. Palamas associates the opinion expressed in words with rational activity, with thinking as such. Of course, in human life and behavior one cannot do without stupid and illogical words and reactions, which can be explained by the excesses of sensuality and irrational forces; Demonic influences also play an important role in this... Despite all the vagueness of Palamas’ teaching in this area, one thing remains undoubted: the first opinion for St. Gregory is essentially a pre-opinion, a primary (like an impulse) movement of the thinking ability (i.e., reason), which cannot be clearly expressed in verbal form. The highest task of a person is “...to raise bodily feelings and perceptions with a spiritual and God-loving mind and raise them to Him (that is, to God. - D.M.) ..." 771 (124D)... striving to achieve deification. But we will talk about this at the end of the chapter. In addition to the traditional themes of Hellenic and patristic anthropology - feelings, perception, opinion, reason, Palamas’ persistent use of the concept of “spiritual spirit” (τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ψυχικὸν) attracts attention, which, although included in the core of his anthropology, is quite rarely subjected to a conscious and systematic explanation by the teacher of silence. We meet him again - in the Twelfth Homily - in a very revealing medical context 772. This homily contains an interesting passage following the retelling of the Gospel episode about the healing of a demoniac (Matthew 17:14–21): the “illness history” of this man is presented and explained from a medical point of view (148C–149A). Citing the verse Matthew 17:15, Palamas asks the question: “Why did he shake, gnash his teeth and wither (ἐξηραίνετο)?” (148C). The answer follows a description of the transmission, in modern terms, of excitatory and inflammatory processes from the brain through the nervous system to other organs, which leads to a general imbalance in the body. The basis of this theory is discernible - this is the teaching of Claudius Galen (c. 130 - c. 200), this, in the words of Nemesius Emesskrgo, “a doctor worthy of wonder” 773, about the brain as the seat of the powerful principle of the soul. Galen's theory was one of the first to be revised in Christian literature by St. Gregory of Nyssa in his treatise “On the Structure of Man” and, apparently, could have become known to Palamas both through familiarization with the works of the bishop of Nyssa 774 and through a number of intermediate links. One of these links could be “Dioptra” by Philip Monotrope (11th century) 775, which even in composition (the conversation of the Soul with the Body) is somewhat reminiscent of Palamas’ dialogue “Theophanes”. Let us try to consider the corresponding teaching of Palamas using the indicated parallels, which will make it possible, at least to a small extent, to shed light on the problem of the sources of medical and, more broadly, natural science knowledge in late Byzantium. These words reflected two aspects of Galen’s views and the subsequent tradition of medieval healing - the doctrine of the brain and the doctrine of the transmission of excitations through nerves and impulses. The latter was widely known to the popular consciousness, to which Palamas appeals (see also the example we are examining from the Thirty-first Homily), firmly associated with such phenomena as convulsions and, perhaps, epilepsy (however, due to lack of data, we leave the latter topic to be judged by historians of medicine). “In someone possessed by a demon,” writes Palamas, “the brain suffers first and more than other parts of the body; for the demon uses the spiritual spirit [imprisoned] in him (τῷ ... ψυχικῷ πνεύματι) as a stronghold (ὀχήματι) and from there, as if from some fortress, oppresses the whole body” (148C). So, the brain is the original center of excitation and the organ that controls all human activity, since it contains the spiritual spirit, thanks to which a person acts. This “substantialist” approach to the brain as the seat of vital force is consistent with the position of Galen, who wrote that in fever patients: “... the brain is affected, in which the sovereignty of the soul is located” 776. And although already St. Gregory of Nyssa opposed the one-sidedness of such an approach to the problem, believing that the mind, as the sovereign principle of the soul, is not limited to any one part of the body, but “... according to the ineffable logos of dissolution... equally touches every member” 777. Palamas in this aspect, it seems, is closer to the original meaning of the teachings of the great Alexandrian. If the Archbishop of Thessalonica really knew something definite about Galen, then the Alexandrian doctor’s mediator between them could be “Dioptra” by Philip Monotrope, the 16th chapter of the 2nd book of which opens with the following phrase: “They say that the spirit (animum) is a rational nature (intellectualem naturam) and breathes vital force (vitalem vim) into the organs of the body, [necessary both] for the ability of the senses to act (effectiveiam) and for action. For that which is incorporeal is entirely rational” 778. The mind here is essentially identified with the life force, which Galen and Palamas locate in the brain. You can remember that with the mind, according to St. Gregory, the activity of the mind is also called 779. The spiritual spirit provides the energetic basis for such activity (as for any human activity in general). “When the brain is subjected to suffering,” continues Palamas, “from there a certain outflow is emitted through the nerves and muscles, causing swelling and inflammation (φυσσώδης ὁμοῦ καὶ φλεγματώδης) and blocking the passages of the spiritual spirit” (148D). As a result of this, there is a disorder (κλόνος) of the functioning of organs and parts of the body controlled by the brain (πᾶσι τοῖς προαιρετικοῖς μορίοις), their rupture and involuntary movement (Ibid.). And this was the punishment that befell Cain: in the Thirty-first Homily we are told that Cain lived in constant confusion (or disorder - διηνεκεῖ κλόνῳ) (397B). What follows is a brief analysis of the reasons for this, “etiology” (cf. in the quoted treatise of Gregory of Nyssa): “After all, this trembling (ὁ ... τρόμος), which the children of doctors call convulsions (σπασμὸν), is [nothing more than] an involuntary contraction (κίνησις) those parts (τοῖς ... μορίοις) of the body whose purpose is to maintain [safe and sound] organs and limbs (τὰ μέλη), connecting them with each other” (Ibid.). From these descriptions it is clear that nerves and muscles are considered by Palamas as channels for the transmission of nervous and somatic impulses from the brain to the rest of the body and from one member to another, as a result of which the body functions as a balanced system. It seems likely that this idea is based on Galen's teaching about three types of nerves, the first of which are the motor (προαιρετικὰ) nerves coming from the brain through the spinal 780. Their function includes transmitting signals from the brain to the rest of the body. But these fragments intersect in some other ways. They contain and clearly embodies the idea of ​​God's judgment: indeed, this convulsion that befalls sinners is, in essence, nothing more than divine retribution. In this regard, it is interesting that in order to provide moralistic examples of this kind as a visual edification, the Archbishop of Thessaloniki used the common ideas among his flock about the most common diseases. Apparently, this kind of phenomenon was at the center of medicine at that time. It is noteworthy that Palamas explains Cain's convulsions by the lack of natural moisture in the body (ἐξ ἐνδειας ... τοῦ ἐμφύτου ὑγροῦ) (397ΑΒ), obviously appealing to the theory of the four liquids of Hippocrates - Galen, and also - taking into account The historical circumstances of the writing of this sermon, associated with the plague epidemic 781, lead to a lack of drinking water in the city. All this leads us to assume that, when addressing his listeners, he fully took into account the realities of his era, being by no means alien to the general scientific and philosophical culture. Back in 1962, O. Temkin noted that the Galenic tradition retained its influence until the end of Byzantine history 782. The indicated points of similarity between the views of Palamas and Galen can be explained by their genetic connection. It remains only to note at the end of this story that physiological problems interested Palamas not so much in themselves, but in connection with the development by the teacher of silence of a general anthropology, which is based on the Gospel gospel about man. This anthropology does not contain any Platonic or Evagrian biases. The wealth of components of human nature identified and analyzed in the “substantial aspect” serve only to confirm the main idea of ​​this anthropology: man is considered as an integral psychosomatic being, in all his composition called to eternal life. The breadth and depth of elaboration of this topic noticeably distinguishes Palamas in the firmament of late Byzantine patristic thought. And only when considering his anthropological teaching in its entirety does it become possible to understand its exclusivity. § 3. The situation of human existence: Sin. The Fall. Mortality In the previous two paragraphs we examined the static aspect of the anthropology of St. Gregory Palamas; From now on we will be interested in its dynamic aspect. We have already noted that for Palamas man is, first of all, a rational being, a rational soul; “every rational soul is by nature inclined to virtue (πρὸς ἀρετήν ἐστιν εὐφυής)” (77A). Moreover, every good deed is preceded by a corresponding intention (πρόθεσιν) (76C). This would be impossible if man were not gifted with free will. Along with reason, this is the most important aspect of revealing the image of God in man: if reason (relatively speaking) refers to the static side of the image, then free will represents its dynamic side. God created man free, so that man could freely choose good. “God,” according to Palamas, “creating (πλάττων) man free (αὐτεξούσιον), honored him with special care, so that he would incline not to evil, but to good, properly (καλῶς) disposing of free will (τῷ αὐτεξουσίῳ)" (449B). So, free will is an independent – ​​and, moreover, central – feature of the image of God in man (one can say that it largely determines the content of this image), which allows one to properly fulfill the task that was set before him by the Creator. So, this is the sense in which it is said that a person “has free will (ἔχει γὰρ τὸ αὐτεξούσιον)” (152D). This is not yet the final freedom to remain in goodness, but freedom of orientation, freedom to choose goodness and slowly but steadily follow it, coupled with the need for a constant, in each specific situation, choice between good and evil. In all these situations, merging into one common mega-situation of human existence and action in this world, a person is tested for the steadfastness of following his chosen path and for his commitment to the Almighty and the world of absolute values. Actually, the separation of the sheep from the goats, which is narrated in the Twenty-fifth Chapter of the Gospel of Matthew, is already taking place in this life: at the Last Judgment only the results of the division that has taken place will be summed up. That is why the one who says that it was not necessary to create the evil ones, who will suffer the punishment they deserved forever, actually claims that “... it was not necessary for rational nature to appear. For what would be the use of a rational nature if it did not have freedom of choice and the ability of self-determination (προαιρετικὸν καὶ αὐτεξούσιον εἴη)? And how can an autocratic [nature], possessing freedom of choice, live without being able - if desired - to become evil? And if [a person] is not able to become evil, then good – and even more so” (517C). From here the wisdom of Providence about man is evident; Providence, which does not create evil, but only allows it to arise for the time being in our souls, and from there it spills out into the outside world... Man is called to reveal his freedom. For this, he received a special dignity - a special gift from God: “...we, created by God free (αὐτεξούσιοι) and who received [from Him] autocratic dignity against passions (αὐτοκρατορικὸν ἀξίωμα κατὰ τῶν παθῶν), absolutely free from anyone who would rule over us in a violent manner (οὐκ ἔχομεν ὅλως τὸν κατακρατοῦντα καὶ βιαζόμενον)" (369С). Therefore, our salvation largely (if not to say in decisive features) depends on our will. Here Palamas expresses the traditional point of view of the Eastern Fathers: they emphasized the importance of free will, the freely chosen feat of following and imitating Christ 783, but at the same time they especially noted, “... that a person, although he may sometimes desire virtue of his own accord, ... in order to fulfill these desires, he always needs the help of God...” 784 Such an understanding of asceticism included it in a holistic Christological and soteriological perspective; and yet this position differs significantly from those views that the teachers of the Western Church developed on the subject. According to the latter, “... predestination is a part of Providence,” and therefore “... people through divine Providence (and only. - D. M.) are determined to eternal life” (Thomas Aquinas) 785. Here, as we see, a person’s own effort is eliminated. The Eastern Fathers look at history and human activity in it from a more optimistic anthropological perspective; Developing their ideas and approach, Palamas teaches that “...God not only did not create (οὐκ ἐποίησεν) death, but also prevented [its] appearance (ἐκώλνσε γενέσθαι), however, due to the fact that He created man as a free being ( αὐτεξούσιον ζῶον τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἔπλασεν), He should not have forbidden [him to do what he did], so as not to destroy his own work, depriving [us] of free will (τὴν ... αὐτεξουσιότητα), which He gave to us. But [God] in [His] wisdom and goodness found a way to both protect man from death and preserve his free will (τὸ ... αὐτεξούσιον)" (388D). So, foreseeing the fall of man, God still preserved his freedom as a royal (autocratic!) feature of His image in him - a feature without which creative work, self-restraint and feat, which represents the deepest essence and self-disclosure of humanity, is impossible. In order to maintain this royal feature of the image in oneself, and through its correct use to achieve the final goal of existence - being with God, a person is required to live “according to conscience (κατὰ συνείδησιν)” (385A), which is the natural law that is implanted in us from above. Conscience is characterized by Palamas in strikingly categorical and solemnly minted expressions - as “a standard that does not deviate [from the Truth] (στάθμην ἀπαρέγκλιτον) 786, a judge that cannot be deceived (κριτὴν ἀνεξαπάτητον), infallible teacher (διδάσκαλον ἀπαραλόγιστον)” (36B). This definition shows Palamas's tendency towards an apophatic way of thinking. As for the designation of conscience as a standard (i.e., essentially, a law), we can recall that at the level of cosmology, the law for Palamas is nothing more than a form of realization of the will of God; in man, as has just been shown, this realization cannot be violent - and therefore conscience is embedded in him as an advisory and accusatory organ, indicating the direction along the path and warning against false turns. But why was there a need for a direction indicator and a guide at all? Why can’t a person make do with the data of the mind alone in the process of life – together with rational thinking and the underlying components of his nature? What violated the pristine harmony of his relationship with God? Although the Fall is for Palamas, as for any Christian thinker (as well as for Plotinus), the starting point of reasoning, he speaks very succinctly about this event, which determined the fate of the world - he is much more interested in the consequences for the human will (γνώμη) 787 arising from this fact. In the Thirty-first homily, dedicated to the topic of death, the saint explains that the forefathers, having obeyed - contrary to the will of the Creator (παρὰ γνώμην τοῦ κτίσαντος) - the advice of the evil one, “... exposed the luminous and life-giving (ζωτικῶν) clothes from the highest radiance (ἐκ τῆς ἄνωθεν αἴγλης), steel - alas! – and themselves dead in spirit (κατὰ πνεῦμα), like Satan (ὁ Σατὰν) 788 "(396D). And only this death in spirit is followed by the death of the soul, foretold by God, which precedes the death of the body. It is the death of the soul that Palamas calls eternal (409CD; cf.: 125A, 196A, 389A, 492B). God foresaw and foretold this death, but did not predestinate it (389A); the death of the soul is followed by the death of the body. This understanding of the death of the soul as its separation from God, followed by bodily death, finds full correspondence in the Orthodox tradition, starting with St. Irenaeus of Lyons 789. As a result of the fall, we lost the pleasure of heaven (τῆς ἐν τῷ παραδείσῳ τρυφῆς), and at the same time - “... communication with God face to face ( τῆς αὐτοπροσώπου πρὸς Θεὸν ὁμιλίας), coexistence with His angels and eternal life” (376B), having received in exchange for a dispassionate and carefree residence the present one, full of passions and hardships (έπίπονον). “Who will not cry,” exclaims Palamas, “realizing the loss of this? He who has not realized it does not belong to the camp (τῆς μοίρας) of the faithful” (Ibid.). What attracts attention in this passage is the juxtaposition and, in essence, identification of the vision of God and communication with Him with the bliss of eternal life. For God is life (cf., for example: Ps. 15:11; Acts 2:28; etc.). Of the many medieval parallels to this place, we will cite only one - from the first chapter of “Proslogion” by Anselm of Canterbury: “Oh, the pitiful lot of man who has lost that for which he was created! Oh, this is a heavy and disastrous fall! Alas, what did he lose and what did he find, what came from and what remained! He lost the bliss (beatitudinem) for which he was created, he found a need for which he was not created” 790. “You see now,” Rev. addresses his potential listener. Simeon the New Theologian, - from what glory and what bliss did man fall into what dishonor, foolishness and corruption? From how great wealth came to how great poverty?” 791 These words show with sufficient clarity that the original and fundamental tragedy of Christian existence was experienced in a similar way at both poles of the medieval Christian ikumena - but only insofar as it concerns the initial stage of man’s situation in the world, the very conditions of his current existence: lamentation for sins must turn into a struggle for deliverance from sin. However, first one must understand the scale of the danger 792. Palamas especially emphasizes the universality of sin: “we have all deviated, collectively we have become unfit [for eternal life] (πάντες ἐξεκλίναμεν, ἅμαἠχρειώθημεν)” (485D). Inheriting corruption and mortality from Adam, coming into the world thanks to carnal lust, we - due to the weakness of our nature - imitate Adam 793, which is why we all need cleansing and new life (64B) 794. Therefore, to the common curse and condemnation that is passed on to each of us at birth (πρὸς ἐκείνην τὴν κοινὴν ἀράν τε καὶ καταδίκην), each of us by our own deeds attracts either blame or praise from God παρὰ Θεοῦ ἐπεσπᾶτο) (64B; literally “attracted”). What can you do to avoid condemnation and earn praise? What are the anthropological foundations of the feat revealed by Palamas in the homilies? The source of evil is rooted in “the freedom (autocracy) of our will” (τῷ αὐτεξουσίῳ τῆς ἡμῶν προαιρέσεως – 52B). Due to its “rigidity and inflexibility” (τὸ σκληρὸν καὶ ἀνένδοτον τῆς ἡμετέρας γνώμης – 457B) evil in the world increases – and will increase until the Second Coming of the Lord (52BC): from bad customs and sin-loving will φιλαμαρτήμονος γνώμης )”, which Palamas calls for a departure (493A), are difficult to refuse. Because of this sin-loving will, the uprising of the Zealots flared up and the common bond of all the townspeople - love (13C) - was destroyed. At the same time, we are talking about Christian love for one’s neighbor, which should be inherent in Christians as members of the Church, which is the Body of Christ, and also as the only begotten (ὁμογενεῖς) from Adam (1AB). This division of will, when many ceased to strive for the contemplation of God and an immaculate life, is understood by Palamas as the result of sin; As a result, humanity was divided into the righteous, striving for life with God and in God, and sinners, who abandoned the original high destiny of man. But even within the personality there was a separation of the spiritual and carnal principles, which entailed their enmity; corresponding thoughts in the Christian tradition are based (speaking in terms of their connection with Scripture) on the isolation and opposition of the law of the spirit and the law of the flesh in the epistles of St. Apostle Paul (cf. Rom. 6–8, esp. 8:12–14; etc.). In the language of asceticism, which Palamas adheres to (and which is an obligatory language for soteriology), this opposition is also designated as the opposition of mind and passions. We will now deal with the analysis and classification of passions. § 4. The doctrine of passions and their genesis. Characteristics and classification of passions The highest point of human nature is the mind; It is with the characteristics of the mind that Palamas begins the conversation about the phenomenon of passions, passion and passionate behavior. “First of all, our property and wealth (οὐσία καὶ περιουσία),” Palamas testifies, “our mind, invested [by God in our nature] (ἔμφυτος). And while we adhere to the paths of salvation, it is collected in itself (συνηγμένον ... προς έαυτον), as well as around the First and highest Mind - God. When we open the door to passions (τοῖς πάθεσι), it immediately dissipates (σκορπίζεται), wandering hourly among the carnal and earthly - among the varied pleasures and passions (ἐμπαθεῖς ) thoughts about them” (40B). It is thoughts that prompt a person to indulge in passions and immoderate pleasures of the flesh, as Palamas repeatedly says (153A; see next paragraph). The function of the mind consists in dominating thoughts, cutting off bad ones and choosing the correct existential orientation of human behavior and activity - based on God and absolute values. The mind is a sovereign principle (ἡγεμονικόν) and, as it were, the “roof of the soul” precisely because of the ability invested in it to control the irrational aspirations and sensual drives of human nature. “The roof in us,” explains Palamas, “is the rational principle of the soul (τὸ λογιστικὸν τῆς ψυχῆς), as superior to everything [else] in our [nature]; but, as if with heavy matter (πολλὴν ὥσπερ ὕλην), his attachment (τὴν ... σχέσιν) to passions and earthly things” (1200). Striving towards the earthly, the mind “...follows carnal desires (ταῖς σαρκικαῖς ὀρέξεσι)” (121A). Therefore, his thought becomes twofold (here the word “thought” is used in its positive meaning - as a synonym for mental activity in general); overwhelmed by sensual pleasures and pleasures, the mind can completely forget about man’s heavenly homeland and the dignity of Adam before the Fall, as well as about its original purpose - to see God and communicate with Him. When bad thoughts are introduced into the consciousness and followed, a division of the human will also occurs - and quite quickly: various aspirations competing with each other appear in it, sometimes leading the one who follows and succumbs to them, far from God. In this regard, it seems useful to consider Palamas’ interpretation of the parable of the prodigal son. Explaining what the words of Scripture mean: “a certain man had two sons” (Luke 15:11), the saint says: “... the fact is that a single nature was divided in two by a difference of choice (εἰς δύο διεῖλεν ἡ τῆς γνώμης διαφορά) - and [in turn], many were united into two [groups] by the division of virtue and vice (ἡ τῆς ἀρετῆς καὶ τῆς κακίας διαστολή). That is why we sometimes call [one person], one in hypostasis (τὸν καθ’ ὑπόστασιν ἕνα), double when his character is twofold (ὅταν ἔχῃ τὴν τοῦ ἤθους διπλόην) - and, on the contrary, many - one (τοὺς πολλοὺς ἕνα), when they agree (συνᾴδουσι) with each other [at will]” (36D–37A). Thus, the two sons here are unambiguously understood as the personification of two possible paths for a person in this world - the path of life (that is, life with God) and the path of destruction. Further, explaining why the youngest son, St., came to his father. Gregory says that “...sin... is younger (νεωτέρα), [being] a later invention of our bad will (τῆς ... προαιρέσεως), virtue is original (παλαιγενής - literally “born of old”), eternally ( ἐξ ἀϊδίου) [abides] in God, and was put into our soul by God by grace at the [very] beginning [of human creation]” (37A). So, the path of life and the possible salvation of a person depend on will. The opposition “virtue - vice” (ἀρετή – κακία) outlined here will be one of the most important for Palamas (see the paragraph on John the Baptist). The difference of wills (τὸ τῆς ... προαιρέσεως διάφορον), in accordance with which the just reward of God follows, turns out to be the determinant by which people are determined to be bad (πονηροὶ) and good ( ἀγαθοὶ), sheep and goats. If a person does not turn his will to the best (ἐπὶ τὸ κρεῖττον – 328D), a sad fate awaits him. Expounding to his listeners the doctrine of will and arbitrariness as the source of sins and passions, Palamas reveals the traditional motives of Christian teaching. And what else could his pastoral task be if not to proclaim the fundamental truths of the Christian gospel? It would be unreasonable to expect anything extraordinary from a collection of homilies in this area. But still, in the doctrine of the passions, Palamas discovers true originality and the power of thought, analyzing reality and penetrating to its invisible sources. It is unlikely that in any church author of an earlier period we will find such a detailed catalog of passions, sometimes with the finest, truly jewel-like distinctions between them; and in contemporary Palamas literature it is not easy to find any adequate parallels. (The little that we do indicate is in sources not included in the Philokalia and, for the most part, published only in recent years). Можно смело утверждать, что изучение этой стороны наследия св. Gregory Palamas - in a truly systematic context of patristic Tradition - is still waiting in the wings. Here we set our goal to take a look at this wealth of the saint’s hamartological teaching, to comprehend it as an internally harmonious system (and not a set of random - ad hoc - instructions and recommendations) and to show it as a system, bringing - for the convenience of the reader - the main terms into an easily visible table. Already in the course of the implementation of this task, we hope it will become clear what a deep connoisseur of the human soul in the incalculable wealth of its external and internal manifestations, to the coarsened eye of inaccessible manifestations, the Archbishop of Thessaloniki 795 appeared. To begin our conversation, we need to define some basic points. Abundant material for this is provided to the researcher, in particular, by the Thirty-third Homily “On the Virtues and the Passions Opposite to Them...” (412D–424A). Here we read: “If [a person] delights in obscene conversations (ὁμιλίαις οὐ καλαῖς) and does not listen to spiritual teaching 796, but indulges (τίθεται) in what he hears from [someone] bad ( φαῦλον), then quickly becomes coarsened (falls into a rage - ἀγριαίνει) and strengthens [in bad behavior] (ὑλομανεῖ), feeding bad passions (τὰ πάθη τὰ πονηρὰ) and generating in your body and soul deadly thorns and stings, which are sins (αί ἀμαρτίαι). After all, the initially evil serpent (ὁ ἀρχέκακος ὄφις) 797 in the beginning, as you all know 798, pierced man with sin, made him mortal and, casting him (ἐκβολών) from the place of pleasure (τῆς τρυφῆς), moved into this corruptible and long-suffering (πολυώδυνον) world” (413A). A little further, the saint appeals to the parishioners: “Let us take heed, brethren, so that, in one way or another, we love evil lusts (τὰς πονηρὰς ἐπιθυμίας) and boast [of something] in front of each other ( ἀλαζονείαν ἔχοντες ), we have not fallen away from the love of the Heavenly Father (cf. 1 John 2:15–16). For, [pointing to] these two [occupations, the apostle] embraced all kinds of passions that separate us from God ( τοῦ Θεοῦ )" (416Α). The identity of bad passions and bad lusts is striking. Without going into details, which will be discussed later, for now let’s say that passion (in its primary definition) is any spontaneous-impulsive movement of human nature 799 that is not consistent with the will of God and/or occurs contrary to it. Sin, as can be seen even from the metaphor of thorns and thorns, is something more active, it is the result of the conscious or semi-conscious use of a passionate skill, its further disclosure and deployment, the realization of those bad potencies that passion brings with it. It will be more convenient to define it as any action (conscious or unconscious) that is contrary to the will of God. Each passion individually and all passions together are a breeding ground for sin and the soil for its emergence in the sovereign principle of the soul. However, when analyzing a specific spiritual life, it can be difficult to make a qualitative distinction between these phenomena, which is why Palamas in some cases uses the more capacious, as it seems, term “vice” (ἡ κακία), denoting with it any manifestation of evil in human nature - both passion/passions and sins. In order to understand these features of Palamas’s use of words and understand the trains of thought behind them, we will try to delve into the following definition given by the saint: “So, love for God is the root and beginning of all virtue (ἀρετῆς), and love for the world (πρὸς τὸν κόσμον) is the source ( πρόξενος) of every vice (κακίας)” (416A); “The reason for love for the world is love for ours [i.e. e. each of us] body, for we love the world because of the body and bodily voluptuousness (τὴν ... εὐπάθειαν). And the reason for love for God is love for our spirit, or soul” (Ibid. B). So, the most important thing is the general - main - orientation of the will (τῆς γνώμης), which is determined both rationally (say, from disbelief in God) and irrationally (from an addiction to pleasure), in turn, determining all subsequent acts and actions of the individual. This is exactly how Palamas depicts the genesis of passion: “Just as the soul by its nature strives for future pleasure (τῆς ... ἡδονῆς), so the body strives for the present and fleeting; and such pleasure is sensual, achieved by the senses and through the senses, which are the world (ἅ ἐστιν ὁ κόσμος), is introduced (προσγίνεται) [into our nature]; that is why he who loves the body loves the world. And when, because of this love for the body, we immoderately thirst for worldly pleasures, [they] pursue and cherish (περιέποντες), we surround ourselves with a multifaceted and ugly swarm of passions (τὴν πολύμορφον τῶν παθῶν ... ἀσχημοσύνην )" (417BC). Примечательно, что низшему виду наслаждения, связанному с мимолетным пленением чувственными страстями, Палама противопоставляет наслаждение высшее – покой восьмого дня в Царствии Божием (об этом еще будет речь впереди). В такого рода антитезах со всей неподдельностью и глубиной приоткрывается радостный характер евангельского благовестия; достаточно перечитать ряд гомилий различных авторов на церковные праздники – в особенности на Пасху, – чтобы убедиться в этом. But the highest pleasure requires the renunciation of the lower; освободиться же от чувственных пристрастий не так-то просто ввиду их исключительного многообразия – того «роя», который порабощает себе душу: «поскольку... наши чувства многочисленны и разнообразны, многочисленны и разнообразны и [соответствующие] им наслаждения ( αἱ κατ’αὐτὰς ἡδοναὶ ) и [происходящие] от этих [наслаждений] passions (πάθη)" (Ibid. C). So, Palamas paints a clear picture of the genesis of passion: incorrect orientation of the will (i.e., not corresponding to the original purpose of man to be with God) -> excessive emphasis on sensory perception and turning it into the guiding principle of life, which in itself means rejection of the controlling role of the mind -> sensual pleasure (and concentration of the will on collecting and, if you like, “collecting” sensual pleasures) -> sensual passions 800 –> invisible passions (Ibid. CD). We now have to understand this variety of passions highlighted by the saint. But is the world itself evil? No, Palamas answers, but “... just as one nature is divided by different choices, so this one world is divided by different uses” 801 (37C). Only in the case of bad use, corresponding to an evil choice, can we talk about passion (in the traditional ascetic-negative sense, which we take here as self-evident). Let us summarize all types of passions mentioned and analyzed by Palamas into a table. Таблица 3. Виды страстей, выделяемые св. Gregory Palama – реконструируемая форма (Subst., Nom. Sg.) – по глагольным или иным производным. Even if these calculations are somewhat inaccurate, they still, it seems, reflect the real picture of the mental and spiritual life of a person as understood by the Archbishop of Thessaloniki; in addition, many components of this table (No. 30,40,43,56,83,97,120:131), albeit in passing, shed light on the real side of the life of Thessalonians in the 14th century. So let’s repeat: the homilies of St. Gregory Palamas seems to us to be a very valuable source on the history of the socio-political, economic and spiritual life of the second most important urban center of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-14th century, as well as on the history of Byzantine social thought, religiosity and culture of that time 842. To understand the reality in question, it is necessary to try to penetrate as deeply as possible into the terminology used by Palamas. He himself made an effort to explain it with the greatest possible clarity. In the hamartology of the teacher of silence, the most important role is played by the concepts of passion, thought, impulse (ἡ ὄρεξις), will and skill (ἡ ἕξις) (not to mention the concept of sin, the most important in Christianity). The significance of the sin-loving will (ἡ φιλαμαρτήμων γνώμη) in the formation of sin has already been discussed (see also: 421C; 505D); one only needs to add that it is the unrepentant will (ἡ ἀμετανόητος γνώμη), continuing to push its bearer to commit bad deeds, that gives rise to in him that “immutable skill of evil (ἀμετάβλητον ... τῆς κακίας ἕξιν)” (60C), which, not being overcome, classifies the sinner with the devil and his companions in hell. But still, the terms “thought” and “passion” appear as fundamental in Palamas’ teaching. The theory of the origin of passions is set forth by the saint in the Thirty-third Homily; Continuing its analysis, it must be said that all the passions of St. Gregory divides into three groups. If in the Thirteenth Homily he singled out only visible (φανερὰ) and invisible (ἂφανῆ) passions, referring to the first gluttony (No. 38), drunkenness (No. 87) and related to them (καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα), and to the second - vanity (No. 72), pride (No. 135), conceit (No. 99) and hypocrisy (No. 138) (157BC), then here he adds a third to these two groups: mixed passions (μικτὰ ηάθη), consisting of sensory perception (ἡ αἴσθησις) and representation ( ἡ φαντασία), obviously combined in different proportions. As an example, the teacher of silence cites people-pleasing (No. 17), as well as, as the first time, vanity with pride. He derives invisible passions from the idea, which he calls “the most comprehensive (περιεκτικωτάτη) internal feeling... in which - and precisely in it (καθ’ ἣν καὶ αὐτὴν) - other pleasures (ἡδοναὶ) and passions (πάθη), among which are conceit, arrogance (No. 154. - D. M.) and bragging (No. 12. - D. M.)" (420B). As we see, invisible passions include mainly various types of exaltation of one’s own Self, although in the latter case Palamas places pride in the category of mixed passions (is it because pride, having the locus of its origin in the soul, strives - unlike, say, conceit - one way or another to reveal itself outside, in relations with the world and other people?). The same can be said about bragging and vanity (the desire to “show off”), and about passions akin to them. As for sensual passions, then, according to Palamas, “... the soul, overcome by love for the body, in all [imaginable] ways, chasing sensual pleasure (τὸ ... ἡδὺ) and pulling [inside itself] from everywhere - through touch, taste and other senses - matter ( τὰς ὕλας) for pleasures, gives rise to covetousness (No. 147. - D. M.) and love of money, and [they] are thefts, violation of justice (τὰς ἀδικίας), theft and all types (πᾶν εἶδος) of greed" (420AV). In a few words, the phenomenology of the passionate process is revealed here, which is a consequence and development of the general attitude of the sin-loving will towards sensual, and therefore - inevitably - external pleasure in relation to the essence of man; speaking in modern language, Palamas in his sermons poses and analyzes the problem of man’s alienation from himself, his loss of human essence - it is no coincidence that all these passions are called bad (πονηρὰ, πονηρῶν κ. τ. λ .: 40D; 101 V; 157Β; 169Α; 188Α; 321Α; 413В; 508Β), vile (βδελυρῶν – 45С), “the most terrible (πάνδεινα)” (484В), “these shameful impurities” (320Α) etc. This is done by the preacher with a very specific purpose - to show that, “by committing abominable [acts] (βδελυκτὰ ἐργαζόμενοι)” (485B), a person loses his true essence. Submitting to sin, he lives precisely in an unnatural (παρὰ φύσιν) state, as St. Gregory of Sinaite 843, former, according to some (not yet published) data, the closest teacher of St. Gregory Palamas on Mount Athos 844. But there is another classification. In the Thirty-third Homily, Palamas says that along with the passions consisting of pleasure and sorrow (καθ’ ἡδονὴν καὶ ὀδύνην) (obviously in different proportions), there are others - neither painless nor associated with pleasure 845. They are something in between (σύμμικτον), a mixture of opposite elements: these include No. 49, 74, 45 and 139, that is, various types of lies - in one form or another. It is clear that, although pleasant at first, they cause harm to the soul, that is, their essence is deceptive: obviously, the saint’s thought moved in this direction. This example once again shows Palamas’s thoughtfulness and elaboration of various types of classifications, and on the other hand, their conventionality: such a complex phenomenon as the “system of untruth” (421C), generated by man, can be divided into various subgroups that make it up, but does not lend itself clearly to simple arithmetic division. Therefore, we would refrain for now from a complete rubrication of all the passions we have identified, that is, from assigning each of them to one or another group (or category). Let us note, however, that two blocks are most clearly distinguished in the description of Palamas: 1) hypogastric (i.e., subject to the womb) passions (τὰ ὑπογάστρια πάθη – 140A, 337D, 417D) 846, coupled as τρυφή, with excess in food and in the sphere of sexual relations (No. 3, 11, 13, 16, 25, 32, 34, 38, 41, 54, 63, 75, 76, 77, 82, 87, 94, 96, 101, 104, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 122, 129, 132, 145:155), and: 2) passions aimed at exalting one’s own self and hiding the truth about it (No. 12, 46, 47, 49, 52, 59, 65, 72, 100, 124, 134–141, 143–146, 149, 151, 154:156), as well as: 3) vain chatter, quarrels, hostility (towards one’s neighbor and God), slander and slander (see: No. 19, 21–24, 30–33, 35–37, 39, 43, 45, 51, 53, 55, 58, 60, 65 (complex passion!), 66–70, 74, 78–81, 84, 85, 88–93, 102, 106–109, 112–114, 118–121, 125–128, 130, 131, 135, 153, 156:157). Standing apart is the group of fortune-telling, witchcraft and witchcraft (No. 40, 57, 83; cf. also No. 7, 31, 48, 68, 95 (a word with a very broad meaning 847), 108, 118, 148, in which there may be a hint of these - as well as others - manifestations of human sinfulness). In general, this diversity does not fit into the narrow framework of preconceived classifications. And yet, traces of such a classification are found in St. Gregory Palamas can be discovered. We can say that he himself gives us the key to understanding his own teaching. Let us briefly consider the relevant instructions and thoughts of the saint. The first (and most conspicuous) type of passions is sensual passions (or, as Palamas specifies, “discovered through feeling (τοῖς φαινομένοις κατ’ αἴσθησιν)” (49B)). He includes among them (Ibid.) No. 5, 24, 46, 62, 76, 87, 89, 113, 125 and 132 (αἱ τρυφαί) (according to our list). Each of the five senses has its own pleasures and corresponding passions. “Thus,” says Palamas, “since worldly pleasure is carried out with the help of the senses, and our feelings are diverse and varied, then the pleasures associated with them and the passions consistent with the latter are just as diverse and varied; So, there are some [passions] in sight, others in hearing, others in smell, and in touch, in turn, others, and [again] others in taste. Moreover, the cause of bad passions associated with the sense of taste is not food (ἡ τροφή), but immoderation in it, and this is already overeating (τρυφή) 848. These passions are gluttony (No. 38. - D.M.), guttural rage (No. 77), immoderation in drinking (No. 115) and drunkenness (No. 87). When the belly immoderately takes into itself what [enters into it thanks to] the sense of taste, and throws it out in excess thanks to [the work of the organs of] digestion, it supplies bad matter in abundance (τῆς κακίας τὴν ὕλην) to the sense of touch, just as a certain [source] 849, having received impurity (βδελυρὰ), spews out streams of abomination (βδελυροὺς); thanks to this, the hypogastric passions are formed - fornication (No. 117), adultery (No. 94), licentiousness (No. 10), licentiousness (No. 32) and all uncleanness (No. 8) of the flesh” (417CD). So, here the most important principle of hamartology is stated: each of the five senses has its own group of passions, characteristic only for it. In this case, the scheme for the generation of a passionate state, already known to us, is implicitly implied: sensory perception pleasure -> passion. But there are more comprehensive passions, the origin of which is correlated with one or more feelings. These are the hypogastric passions. We find a very similar list of them in 337D (these two fragments, 417CD and 337D, are generally close to each other): here Palamas refers to the group of hypogastrics No. 82, 117, 94 and 10 (καὶ πᾶσα ἀκολασία); they stem from immoderate lusts (No. 54) of the flesh, “which are gluttony (No. 3. - D.M.), immoderation in drinking (No. 115), drunkenness (No. 87) and gluttony (No. 132)...” A comparison of both fragments proves, in addition, the known synonymy and interchangeability of the concepts “pleasure” and “sensual” lust”: despite the fact that the second of them has a more capacious meaning (moreover, it is assumed that lust serves as a stimulus for receiving pleasure), both of them can, to a certain extent, replace each other in the scheme of the emergence of passion. Thus, we are once again faced with a universal feature of Palamas’s thought: to care not so much about the exact delimitation of terms, which is always scholastic to a certain extent, but to transfer the center of gravity of analysis and narration to the analysis of the life manifestations of living people in specific situations. This, to a certain extent, justifies Meyendorff’s persistent application of the definition “existentialism” to the thought of the saint (however, one must be careful when using such terms). Presumably, the group of sensual passions includes those that are fueled by “matter” coming from outside (τὰς τρεφούσας τὸ πάθος ὕλας – 141B; cf.: 417D). The latter can be understood as both real food (in connection with this, a group of hypogastric passions is distinguished), and immoderate chatter, shows, etc. (the third group from those we noted just above). “When,” continues Palamas, “they (hypogastric passions. - D.M.) enslave hearing, sight, and smell, they make desirable that which is disgusting (ποθεινὰ καθίστησι τὰ μυσαρὰ): shameful speeches, lewd songs, satanic round dances, anointings with myrrh, bringing dishonor (τὰ μύση) [on those who perform them], vile rubbings, [as well as] decoration (τοὺς ὠραϊσμοὺς) with expensive robes and headdresses ( ἀναδημάτων )....” (417D–420A). In these lines we observe how hamartology turns out to be the direct source and basis of the saint’s criticism of the lifestyle and morals of various urban strata - both the poor and middle (with their songs and round dances), and the rich (who are characterized by anointing with myrrh and decoration). General anthropology (of which hamartology is a part) and the doctrine of society are connected by a thousand inextricable threads. And it is precisely the theme of sin and it - alas! - strengthening in the life, everyday life and behavior of people (as well as calls to fight it) is the central link between these components of Palamas’s teachings, which are like the wings of a diptych (or, more precisely, a triptych that crowns the teaching of prayer, contemplation of the Tabor light and deification). The same is the course of Palamas’ reasoning in other places - where he shows how from “the impulses of the flesh drawn to voluptuousness (ὀρέξεις τῆς σαρκὸς)” (37C) sinful acts are born - drunkenness, theft, etc., already listed above (cf. also: 84B). In 101B, in addition, an important explanation is given to the effect that evil passions and false teachings are inextricably linked with each other 850. The relationship between the categories “passion” and “sin” can thus be considered established: passion gives rise to sin. And sin, in turn, is the cause of diseases (397C–400A): it is “...for our sins we endure disasters (διὰ τὰς ἁμαρτίας ἡμῶν πάσχομεν κακῶς)” (484Β) 851. In other words, in accordance with the biblical and patristic tradition, sin is understood as the main cause of untruth occurring in the world. At the beginning of the paragraph, we already said that sin has spiritual origins: passions - both visible and invisible - originate in the spirit. “For our spirit, being the source of all passion (Πρωτοπαθὲς)” (393A), coupled with the will, gives rise to “base and disgusting impulses (χαμερπεῖς καὶ βδελνρὰς ὀρέξεις)" (124C) of the flesh, "defilement (μολυσμός) of body and spirit" (296A; cf.: 113A, 193A - τῷ μολυσμῷ τῆς ἁμαρτίας), bad impulses and actions of the body (508B) and, in a word, numerous “fetters (τοὺς ... συνδέσμους) sinful” (312B); all these ulcers and miasmas owe their origin to “the internal activity of the soul (τὴν ἔνδον ... τῆς ψυχῆς ... ἐνέργειαν)” (153B). All kindling of passions (509C), even external ones (153C), even those accomplished through the senses (509D), go back to spiritual origins. “So,” Palamas testifies, “it is not enough to get rid of only bodily sins (τῆς σωματικῆς ἁμαρτίας), but we also need to cleanse the energy rooted (οἰκουροῦσαν) inside the soul, for bad things come from our hearts thoughts ( οἱ διαλογισμοὶ οἱ κακοὶ ) 852 ... thus, making maximum effort ( πᾶσαν ... σπουδὴν ποιήσας ) to ensure that your inner doing ( ἡ ... ἐργασία ) was consistent with God ( κατὰ Θεὸν ᾖ ), you will overcome [and] external passions ( τὰ ἔξω πάθη )....” (153BC). This is a typically hesychast teaching: we find similar advice in other monuments of the late Byzantine Athonite tradition. Here is one of them: “As for objects (ὕλαις), you must beware of abuse in every thing... to put it simply, do everything as before the face of God (ὡς ἐνπροσώπῳ θεοῦ), not being convicted of anything by your conscience” 853. The general goal of these efforts is victory in sensory and spiritual warfare, purification and achievement of dispassion. Every Christian, according to Palamas, wages a double battle - sensual and spiritual: “So, brothers, we have a battle from without, through the senses, drawing to sin those who do not courageously resist [the onslaught of enemies] (τοὺς μὴ γενναίως ἀνθισταμένους); but this battle does not always rise against us, since our feelings do not function without interruption... But there is another battle, in ourselves - [committed] through thoughts; [this abuse] is much heavier than sensual - after all, it occurs continuously (ἀεὶ ... ἐστιν ἐνεργὴς) and does not require either substances, or suitable moments of time, or places to commit evil” (304CD). What the soul needs to be cleansed from is indicated here with the utmost clarity: bad thoughts. It is the following of them, going through certain stages (addiction, consent... passion itself) 854, that plunges a person into the abyss of sin (480C) 855. It is against them that the teaching of the Gospel arms the soul (305A; cf. next paragraph). Also noteworthy is the military vocabulary (the present participle of the middle voice from the verb ἀνθίστημι), used by Palamas and finding - again - exact analogies in the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention”. The preface of this treatise states that sobriety and prayer are connected in two ways: “First, sobriety resists sin (ἡ νῆφις ἀνθίσταται τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ), ... and then prayer immediately destroys and destroys ( ἀναιρεῖ ... καὶ ἀφανίζει ) bound guards ... shameful thoughts ( τοὺς αἰσχροὺς λογισμοὺς ), which attention alone cannot accomplish” 856. Here we are also talking about the fight against thoughts. Apparently, the teaching set forth in the “Method” was the closest guideline - practical and theoretical - for St. Gregory. Between this treatise and the homilies (and other creations) of Palamas, the relationship of direct spiritual-genetic filiation is clearly visible. They are marked with the seal of one school of spiritual work, which we can confirm with other examples. To more clearly imagine the Chamber’s interpretation of the theme of thoughts, let’s compile a small dictionary of its linguistic embodiment 857 (the epithets collected below are quite characteristic): – Thoughts (λογισμοί): carnal (σαρκικός) (1400; 273C); the evil ones (τῶν πονηρῶν – 153D; τοὺς πονηροὺς – 273A); “invisible... movements of thoughts (τὰ ἀφανῆ ... τῶν λογισμῶν κινήματα)” (156C); defiled (μεμολυσμένων – 181Α) 858; covered with mud (ῥυπαροῖς – 193A); passionate and earthly (ἐμπαθοῦς καὶ γηΐνου – 228ВС); crafty, covered with dirt and earthly (πονηροὺς καὶ ῥυπαροὺς καὶ γηΐνους – 256Α) 859; passionate and base ( τῶν ἐμπαθῶν καὶ χαμαιζήλων λογισμῶν – 296D); passionate (τοὺς ἐμπαθεῖς λογισμοὺς – 305C); ungodly passions and thoughts (τῆς ἀτιμίας παθῶν καὶ λογισμῶν – 340A) (Wed: Rom. 1:26); – Thoughts (φροντίδες): crafty (option – cunning, resourceful; motley, varied) (ποικίλας) 860 (40D); worldly (κοσμικῶν – 69A); carnal (? vain reasoning and thoughts (φροντίσι δὲ καὶ λογισμοῖς ματαοις – 161A) 861; pulling down and filled with depravity (τῶν κάτω συνεχῶν καὶ πολυμόχθων – 228Β) 862. From this list it becomes clear that all epithets, one way or another related to sinful thoughts or thoughts, are organized around several basic characteristics. The most important ontological reality that determines the emergence and proliferation of these thoughts is the depravity of human nature as a result of the Fall; it is only necessary to emphasize once again that, according to Palamas (and the Eastern Fathers in general) 863, people inherit from Adam only corruption and depravity of nature, entailing mortality, and the personal responsibility of each is determined by the aspirations of his sinful will and acts consistent with it. This is the basic position of the Eastern Christian anthropology of St. Gregory explains in the Thirty-ninth Homily (485D). Having listed the various types of passions (all of them are reflected in our table), he continues: “But not each of us has the above listed types of sin (τῆς ἁμαρτίας); but [since] each of us [committed] one of them - or even more, [then] we all deviated [from what God commanded], together we became unfit [for the righteous paths]" (485D) 864. In this place the saint explains that every person is responsible only for his personal sin(s); whatever this sin may be (and only Christ is sinless - 192B), each of us must get rid of it, purifying the external and internal activities of the soul for this. Sin captures both of these sides: Palamas demonstrates how the evil one pushes people’s thoughts towards maliciousness, and the tongue towards slander; between these phenomena, one must think, a cause-and-effect relationship is assumed (88D). In any case, such a connection is possible. As a result, we find ourselves relaxed (παραλελυμένοι, paralyzed) (368D) both in soul and body. Therefore, God sometimes allows mental and physical temptations (οἱ πειρασμοί) - relatively speaking, both with a “plus” and with a “minus” sign: pleasure and suffering (ἡδονή – ὀδύνη); wealth and poverty; etc. (409A). The purpose of this, Palamas explains with reference to James 1:2, 12, is to know ourselves and learn to endure disasters and hardships in order to receive from the Lord the crown of life (409B) - or, in other words, to enter the Kingdom of God, which is communion by grace with the light of His glory, accompanied (to the extent that the creature can accommodate) the vision of this light. After all, God, the saint continues, relying on the Apostle (James 1:13), does not create temptations, but only allows them, for evil and sin are called temptation (Ibid. CD). The reason for this is each person’s own lust (τῆς ἰδίας ἐπιθυμίας – Ibid. D), which needs to be cleared of the orientation towards the bad. Therefore, Palamas, relying on one of the Fathers (ὃ καί τις τῶν θεοφόρων πατέρων ἐδίδαξεν ἡμᾶς), and gives advice to make every effort to purify the internal activity of the soul (153BC; 273C). The teacher of silence dealt with this issue in detail, starting with his early treatise “Three Chapters on Prayer and Purity of Heart” 865. In both cases, one can trace the similarity of the ideas and positions he expressed to the earlier (and, according to A. Rigo, more popular, “Evagrian origin” 866) hesychasm of St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia, as well as Sinai hesychasm (represented by St. Hesychius). It is in Hesychius that we find advice close to Palamas: “Do not direct all [your] effort to the flesh; but [strive] with the same strength for [internal] feat (περὶ τὴν ἄσκησιν); and turn your entire mind to [your] entrails” 867. Theoliptus, in turn, calls for “re-entering the inner activity of the soul,” where the house of Christ is located 868, calling the true occupation of the mind “care for the divine (τῶν θείων τὴν μελέτην)” 869. Again - for the mind was created by God as the ruler and autocrat over the passions, explains Palamas (505C) 870. This presupposes his concentration, unclouded by any sinful excitement, on his inner activity: the vision of God. We will devote the final part of the chapter to the problem of achieving this vision (as interpreted by Palamas). Before that, let's say a few words about how it is possible to achieve this enlightened state; about the Christological and soteriological foundations of the possibility of achievement; We will also briefly analyze the references to virtues scattered throughout the text of Palamas’ homilies, bringing them together. The next part of the chapter will be devoted to the teaching of heroism and virtue. § 5. Possibility of cleansing from passions and sin. Christological Foundations of Salvation For this reason, our Lord Jesus Christ and God, who committed no sin, endured strangulation, so that sinners would imitate Him, and through this not only received remission of sins, but also became fellow members of His Divinity, for such obedience to Him. And whoever does not obey Him and does not endure the strangulation with heartfelt humility, in some way as if ashamed to imitate the passions of Christ, Christ the Lord will be ashamed of him before the angels and His Heavenly Father. Rev. Simeon the New Theologian 871. So, we have consistently examined Palamas’ interpretation of the most important phenomena that dominate man and humanity on their earthly path: death, passion and sin. We tried, following the thought of the saint, to reveal their inextricable connection with each other. Indeed, these phenomena have a common root. Sin—“this dying of the spirit” (208C)—was inevitably followed by death. “This dying of the spirit,” says the saint, “was inevitably followed by bodily dying (ἡ ... νέκρωσις)” (Ibid.). And it is these spiritual sources of sin and death that a Christian must suppress in his life activities aimed at achieving salvation in God. This is precisely the only bad and (in today’s language) “anti-systemic” element brought into the world by the evil will of fallen spirits and man: “So,” Palamas testifies, “... nothing in this life is bad (κακὸν), except sin, even if it leads to corruption (κ ακώσεως) - and even death” (213C; cf.: 13A). A Christian must resist sin, passionate lusts and those who send them to us - i.e. to demons: “Let us,” the archbishop calls, “by abstaining from the evil and persistent pleasures of the flesh, resist (ἀντιπαραταττώμεθα) the principles and powers of terrifying darkness (cf. Eph. 6:12); [let us resist] those who instill in us passionate thoughts [and] evil lusts (τὰς ἐπιθυμίας τὰς πονηρὰς) - and these are always demons; They also rule over the malice (τής κακίας) of darkness, for they were the first to desire darkness. And they are the rulers of the world; but [their power extends only to] those to whom the word of the true Master is in no way applicable: “You are not of the world, but I chose you out of the world” (John 15:19) - “and, having regenerated you by My grace, brought you closer to Me” 872” (305C). So, already in these words we find the key to resolving the problem that worries us: what should a person do in this existential situation, which is passed on, getting worse, 873 from generation to generation, from generation to generation? How to live to save your soul? – In the above quotation we encounter two fundamental provisions (they could be called principles of Christian action): – evil must be resisted; – The Lord brought us closer to Himself. These words appear before us as a summary of the spiritual-ascetic and soteriological tradition of the Christian East. All of it is addressed to man and is filled with calls to resist the misfortunes that beset him 874. But how to get down to business if a person lacks strength? Moreover: many prefer vice to virtue. And St. Gregory Palamas realizes the difficulty of this state of affairs and does not try to evade it. His answer, simple, thorough and profound by the inexhaustibility of the meaning of the Good News, which is not fully contained in human words, represents the completion of the corresponding tradition of speculation of the Greek Fathers, starting with St. Afanasia. Let us listen to these words – and to this Message: “And since all people, having turned to evil by deed, word or thought - or all of these [together], or only two, desecrated (ἐμόλυναν) the purity that was given to human nature from God, and were in need of sanctification (ἁγίασμοῦ); sanctification is accomplished through an offering (τῆς ... προφορᾶς) to God from the firstfruits of each [of people], and this firstfruits (τὴν ἀπαρχὴν) must be pure, and we could not bring such a firstfruits to God - that is why it appeared ( ἀνεφάνη) Christ, the One Undefiled (ἀμόλυντος), and brought to Himself an offering and the firstfruits to the Father (προφορὰν ἑαντῷ καὶ ἀπαρχὴν ... τῷ Πατρὶ) for us, so that we all, looking at Him, believing Him and clinging (κολλώμενοι) to Him through obedience, find ourselves ( εμφανισθώμεν) before the face of God and, having received pardon (ἱλασμοῦ), were sanctified (ἁγιαοθῶμεν)” (205B). So, in view of the fact that “... the verbal... and created man in the image disappeared and the work perfected by God perished 875, in view of the fact that everyone was defiled, so that there was no one to make an immaculate offering, but most importantly, out of the inexpressible love of the Creator for His creation, our Lord Jesus Christ, the second Person of the Holy Trinity, became incarnate in order to destroy sin and death, opening for man the path to salvation and eternal being with God. As St. says Athanasius of Alexandria: “We became the impetus for His incarnation; For our salvation, He showed so much love for mankind that He took upon Himself a human body and appeared in it” 876. And according to St. Gregory of Nyssa, “... it was impossible for human nature to be cleansed of vice otherwise than when “The Lamb takes away the sins of the world” (John 1:29), He destroyed all vice with Himself” 877. Being the largest representative of the main line of patristic theology in the late Byzantine era (XIII-XV centuries), St. Gregory Palamas fully accepted the biblical and Christocentric way of thinking of these and subsequent (here we should mention first of all St. Maximus the Confessor) Fathers 878. In Palamas we find a clear confession of Orthodox diphysitism and difelism: “...Christ,” says the saint, “...has now appeared: One and the same - God and man... possessing two natures and two energies (διττὴν καὶ τὴν φύσιν ἔχων καὶ τὴν ἐνέργειαν )" (120Α). The Christological basis of our deification is what theological thought has been struggling with since the era of St. Irenaeus of Lyon - is affirmed in these words with absolute clarity and immutability, as a fact of faith, not subject to doubt by the all-searching mind and therefore absolutely immutable. This ontological-realist orientation of Palamas’s thought, Christocentric precisely because this thought is Christian, was rightly noted by Meyendorff: “This is the superiority of the Christian event (meaning the fact of the Incarnation. - D. M.) over any psychological aspiration or asceticism external to the grace of the Incarnation is undoubtedly the main idea that permeates the entire theology of St. Gregory Palamas. Even more strongly than the spiritual teachers who preceded him, he feels the reality of the complete change that took place in the relationship between God and man after the Incarnation; Thus, he gives Christian asceticism an objective basis that does not depend on any psychology, much less on spiritual “technique” (author’s italics – D.M.)” 879. In his analysis of the Economy and its soteriological significance, Meyendorff especially emphasizes the importance of the virgin birth of Christ for the appearance of the transfigured flesh 880; Along with this, it seems equally important to note the enormous significance that is attached in the system of views of the teacher of silence to the event of the Death on the Cross and the Resurrection of the Lord Incarnate. Christ, according to Palamas, “... having risen three days from the dead... granted and entrusted (ἐχαρίσατότε καὶ ἐπιστώσατο) to us resurrection and immortality, coupled with eternal, immaculate (ἀκήρατον ) and a truly blessed life in heaven, by the single death of His flesh and its single resurrection, healing us from double (διπλοῦν) death and delivering us from double (διττῆς) captivity - that is, soul and body" (208B). These words must be considered in close connection with the teaching of the saint expressed in 253BC about the need for people to undergo double cleansing - soul and body. One of the goals, according to G.V. Florovsky, “the absolute Epiphany” 881, which was the Incarnation of the Lord, the central fact of world history, was, according to Palamas (and the entire Byzantine tradition), a renewal of human nature; Christ “...teared up on the Cross the record of our sins 882” (216B), “in order to renew human nature (ἵνα καινὸν ποίησῃ τὸν ἄνθρωπον) (italics ours. - D. M.)” (193B), giving man the opportunity to ascend to heaven and appearing Himself as the Source and Giver of new life (Ibid.), Moreover, the Lord also acts as the New Adam - the Head of renewed humanity, or the Church: Christ created His flesh, says the saint, “an inexhaustible source of sanctification (τοῦ ἁγιασμοῦ)” (Ibid. C), i.e. e. Eucharist. The very use of the article with the word “sanctification” is indicative in this context: this serves as evidence that apart from the Church and the sanctification given by the Sacraments, for a person, according to the thought of the saint (and all the Greek Fathers), there is no path to eternal life 883. This path begins with the sacrament of baptism. Common to the Eastern Fathers is the understanding of this sacrament as the killing of the former, sinful life and the resurrection together with Christ to a new life in Him. “Faith and baptism,” wrote Basil the Great, “are two methods of salvation, related and inseparable. For faith is accomplished by baptism, and baptism is founded on faith... both are accomplished by the same Names. Just as we believe in the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, so we are baptized in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit” 884. In the Byzantine tradition, along with the affirmation of this fundamental principle, we find descriptions of baptism that are striking in their thoughtfulness of detail and splendor of rhetoric. It exists, says St. Basil of Seleucia, “heading of all good things (κεφάλαιον), purification of the world (καθάρσιον), renewal of nature, shortest redemption (σύντομος λύτρωσις), easily applicable medicine ( εὔκολον); moisture that burns sins (ὑγρότης ἁμαρτήματα φλέγουσα); a sponge that washes the conscience; clothing that does not deteriorate over time; a tomb that resurrects the buried; an abyss that suffocates sins (βυθὸς ἁμαρτήματα πνιγών); the element that buries the devil (στοιχεῖον διαβόλου μνημεῖον); seal, [serving] as a stronghold for the one who receives [it] (σφραγὶς τοῦ λαμβάνοντος τεῖχος) 885; reliable defender before the Judge; the source that quenches Gehenna; grace that leads [us] to the Lord’s table; a sacrament ancient and new, as if written in a shadow on Moses (ἐπὶ Μωυσέως σκιογραφηθέν)" 886. Compared to this early monument of solemn and jubilant eloquence, Palamas’s description of baptism is not so flowery, but is entirely subordinated to the main task: understanding the ascetic and mystical meaning of the sacrament. In baptism, according to St. Gregory, we are reborn by the Holy Spirit, “receiving remission of past sins and becoming - according to the promise - heirs of God and joint heirs with Christ” (368C). Three themes are outlined here that attract the attention of the teacher of silence: the real (and not symbolic) rebirth of those who are baptized; absolution; inheritance of eternal life. The rebirth in question affects both soul and body. Regarding the remission of sins, Palamas starts from Matthew 9:26. His idea is that absolution begins already in this sacrament, which introduces a person into the sacramental life of the Church (or, in the words of Meyendorff, ecclesiological reality). Starting from Romans 8:23, Palamas explains in the 16th homily: the Apostle refers to the firstfruits as “that sanctification and that grace of the Holy. The Spirit that we receive in divine baptism, being freed from sins, renewed (ἀνακαινισθέντες) and freely justified by the grace of Christ (δωρεὰν). For this serves as the “firstfruits” (ἀπαρχὴ) of these future blessings” (216C). And with the words: “waiting for adoption,” according to Palamas, the apostle makes it clear that we are talking about adoption not in this world, but in “that future one, perfect and indestructible (ἀδιάπτωτον)” (Ibid. D). As for the body, the addition of “the redemption of our body” also means its liberation from passions and corruption, achieved in the next century: “for that adoption that happens here is dissolved (διαπίπτει) many times over, but that which [is accomplished] through the resurrection from the dead is truly perfect and absolutely reliable” (Ibid.). Citing the verses Phil.3:20–21, the saint shows that we are talking about the adoption of the righteous, who spent their entire lives in accordance with the commandments of Christ (οἱ κατὰ Χριστὸν ζήσαντες - 217Α). These people “...will be resurrected in power and glory, having received a glorified and blameless body (ἀκήρατον), in which Christ also clothed himself after the Resurrection, becoming “the firstborn of the dead and the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep” (cf. 1 Cor. 15:20)” (Ibid.). “But this renewal [taking place] in the body,” the saint continues, “is now seen more by faith than by direct vision; in hope, but not yet in reality. And as for the [renewal] of the soul, then it too... originates in divine baptism - thanks to the remission of sins, is supported and increased thanks to right faith (ἐν πίστει δικαιοσύνης), again and again renewed by the knowledge of God (ἐν ἐπιγνώσει τοῦ Θεοῦ) and other virtues consistent with this; and he will perceive perfection in the future contemplation of God face to face (ἐν τῇ... πρόσωπον πρὸς πρόσωπον τοῦ Θεοῦ θεωρίᾳ)” (Ibid. AB). But this is salvation and adoption. Thus, baptism is truly the door to salvation; it is the beginning of that dynamic reality of divine-human relations, which acquires its perfect measure only in the next century, when we see God “face to face.” All these aspects - human rebirth, remission of sins and adoption (read: life with God) - are completely inseparable for Palamas. Commenting on John 1:12–13, St. Gregory points out that the apostle is talking about rebirth and adoption through baptism; The pinnacle of this adoption is the achievement of the state of “children of God.” The one who is resurrected by baptism, according to the saint, “... received the power (δύναμιν) to become conformed to the body of glory. Son of God (Ibid.D). Palamas will repeatedly return to this theme of transformed physicality when interpreting the Transfiguration of the Lord and describing the light of God. I would like to emphasize here, following Meyendorff, Podskalsky, Lurie and others, the inextricable connection in the views of the teacher of silence of this mystical-eschatological topic with the teaching of the Sacraments. Palamas himself wrote, summarizing this aspect of his teaching, that by realizing the grace received in baptism, we “...relocate (μετατίθεμεν) – as far as possible – to our true home...” (368D–369A). The grace of baptism gives us the power needed for this. Thanks to her, we become “full of strength and easily moved towards virtue (πρὸς ἀρετήν εὔτονοι καὶ εὐκίνητοι)” (368D). All of us, says Palamas, by the grace of God, by faith and baptism in Him (how can we not remember Basil the Great!) form a single body of the Church, having Christ as our head (188AB; cf.: 1A et seq.). In a word, baptism is the true beginning of Christian life - life according to God and with God: its beginning “...instills in us the grace of baptism, delivering [us] liberation (τὴν ἄφεσιν) from all sins and from the punishment [following] the curse [of our ancestors] (τῆς ἐκ τῆς ἀρᾶς εὐθύνης ), [why] it is called the bath of rebirth” (216A). This is a very important place: here Palamas gives a concise description of the main stages of the Christian's life path - a path supported by God and leading to God as the ultimate goal. Thus, the teacher of silence gives the key to understanding anthropology as a single and inextricable teaching about Christian work and path (despite the fact that this work itself, or practice, is inextricably linked with faith, understanding and comprehension of what is happening to a person). Above we have already encountered the thoughts of St. Basil the Great about the unity of faith and baptism, as well as Palamas himself - about growing in the knowledge of God. The idea of ​​conscious acceptance as a condition for the effectiveness of the Sacraments, perhaps most clearly expressed by St. Simeon the New Theologian, also included in the Orthodox spiritual Tradition 887. Therefore, you should listen carefully to what Palamas says: “...and perfection will bring [with it] the resurrection desired by the faithful (ἡ ... ἐξανάστασις), and the promise regarding the future age (ἡ κατὰ τὸν αἰῶνα τὸν μέλλοντα ἐπαγγελία ) 888 . And what is between these [end points] consists in life according to the Gospel of Christ, leading which, the man of God (ὁ κατὰ Θεὸν ἄνθρωπος) is fed day by day, grows and is renewed, advancing in the knowledge of God ( προκόπτων εἰς ἐπίγνωσιν θεοῦ), righteousness and sanctification..., transferring your attraction (τὸν πόθον) from [things] visible, carnal and temporal to intelligible ( τὰ νοητὰ ), spiritual and eternal” (216AB). Rarely in late Byzantine (and Byzantine in general) literature is the spiritual path of a Christian so clearly and clearly described, from the first to the last steps. As we see, the main content of this path for Palamas is life according to Christ and the Gospel of Christ, and this means following Christ. And moreover, this path is understood precisely as an imitation of Christ, “for all who inherit this [eternal] life imitate – as much as they can – His earthly life (τὴν πολιτείαν). The beginning of this imitation on our part is holy baptism, the image of the burial and resurrection of the Lord, the middle is a virtuous life (ὁ κατ’ ἀρετὴν βίος) and an evangelical way of action (ἡ κατὰ τὸ Εὐαγγέλιον πολιτεία), and completion is [coming] as a result of spiritual battles (τῶν ... ἐγώνων) victory over passions, opening [us] access (προξένουσα) to life carefree, indestructible (ἀνώλεθρον) and heavenly” (277B). Thus, a person, having been baptized into the “image of the burial and Resurrection of the Lord,” is called to embody in his life the victory over passions and, thanks to this, be worthy of the eternal Resurrection with Christ. Having been buried in Christ, as a result of victory over passions, he becomes “... a fellow... of the Resurrection and Ascension of the Lord, an heir of God and a joint heir with Christ” (277C; cf.: 293A). Thus, life in Christ and according to Christ, beginning with baptism, finds its true justification through likening the path of the ascetic to the path of Christ 889. Of course, Palamas was not alone in such views in the Greek patristic tradition. Let us refrain from citing a wide range of parallels and make only one small observation regarding the closeness of the teaching we are considering to the theology of St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia. Let us reread, in parallel with the Sixteenth Homily of Palamas, an excerpt from the Forty-first Homily, in which St. Gregory calls on his listeners: “So let us put on the new man (τὸν καινὸν ἄνθρωπον) 890, created according to God (κατὰ Θεὸν κτισ θέντα) ( Eph.4:24) in the worship of God (ὁ σιότητι) and righteousness” (525B). The passive participle shows that we are talking about divine power, completing - at the highest stages of the feat - the re-creation of the righteous in His own image. The same process in its dynamics is described by Theoliptus in the Catechetical Sermon on the Transfiguration of the Lord: “A fighter for piety, forcing himself [to make] such ascents (on a smart mountain, that is, above nature. - D. M.) and prospering [in them] (προκόπτων), as one built according to God (ὡς κατὰ Θεὸν κτιζόμενος) (Eph.4:24), emitting brilliance like a lamp ( δίκην φωατῆρος) 891 and encouraging others to imitate the beautiful [acts] (πρὸς μίμησιν καλῶν), honors the Transfiguration of Christ with all his spirit and whole body, cognizing ( ἐπιγινώσκων) (cf. Palamas about the knowledge of God. - D. M.) the sacrament of this holiday...” 892 The quotation from the apostle, however, modified by Theoliptus, perfectly corresponded to the entire structure of the mystical theology of the late Byzantine hesychasts. The commonality - both lexical and, what is much more important, ideological and semantic - of the views of St. Theoliptus and St. Gregory Palamas on the deification of the Christian through enlightenment by the light of the Lord is obvious and undeniable. We can talk about the succession of Palamas from Theoliptus. The reality of the experience of seeing the light that both of these Fathers talk about is laid down (in its possibility) already in baptism - as a guarantee of future bliss - and is supported (or better yet, translated into action) by the entire subsequent structure of a Christian’s life. “Life according to the Gospel” mentioned in 216AB is understood as following the Gospel commandments and their active implementation on the path of life: such following, in particular, “arms and awakens” a Christian to resist (πρὸς ἀντιπαράταξιν) evil lusts (305A). It is to active resistance to bad thoughts and lusts that Palamas calls his listeners, using the same verb with a “military” meaning (cf. the beginning of the paragraph). But still, this is not yet the highest level of following Christ. And only in the Forty-second homily - about the healing of the widow’s son (Luke 7:11-17) - Palamas reveals the highest meaning of this confrontation, points to its true justification: “...so shall we not strive as hard as we can for this [charity provided to the brothers]? Shall we not lay down our very lives for each other in imitation of the Lord, if [He] demands, in order to receive from Him [as a reward] eternal life?” (533C). So, one should always imitate the Lord and respond to His call, no matter what the cost - right up to the end of martyrdom. This understanding of life as living with God, walking in His footsteps, imitating Him and following Him has been the dominant mindset of Christians from time immemorial. Inspired by him, the martyrs went to their deaths in order to unite with Christ beyond the grave. It was he who guided St. Ignatius the God-Bearer, when he wrote to the Romans, comparing himself with Peter and Paul: “...they are free, but until now I am a slave. But if I suffer (ἐὰν πάθω), I will become a freedman (ἀπελεύθερος) of Jesus Christ and will rise free in Him” 893. The same paradigm of mentality and life activity—gaining eternal freedom through the acceptance of death, which would seem to deprive of all freedom—guided the first Russian holy princes Boris and Gleb in their readiness to accept the crown of martyrdom 894 . Therefore, Palamas’s exclamation, deliberately (in order to carefully, as if unobtrusively and incidentally, lead the audience to the perception of ideas important to him 895) “fleeting” and “momentary”, should be regarded as an expression of an integral and integral anthropological-ascetic program of following Christ, in His footsteps and imitating Him 896. As a result of the implementation of this program, asceticism becomes truly Christocentric and acquires a Christocentric dimension. Christ, says the teacher of silence, is for us not only the Redemption (λύτρον), “...but also the Model (παράδειγμα), and the Teaching embodied in action (διδασκαλίαν ἔμπρακτον) and immeasurably higher every deed, word and mind..." (533D). He gave us this example in His Person, “so that we would follow [Him] in His footsteps (ἵνα ἐξακολουθήσωμεν τοἰς ἴχνεσιν αὐτοῦ) and be ready, if [He] demands, even our soul put in fulfillment of His commandments" (Ibid.). This is the deepest testament to Christians - and at the same time a strict call to them. It is on this path that one can find salvation—and even holiness. This is exactly how St. lived and suffered martyrdom. Demetrius of Thessalonica, “... imitating the One who suffered for us (τὸν ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν παθόντα μιμούμενος)” (545C) is a motif common in hagiographic literature. It is on this path that the life of a Christian becomes a feat. It should be emphasized that St. Gregory Palamas speaks not just about “imitation of the Lord” (say, in a moral sense), but about the very real - ontological and praxeological - feat of self-denial and faith: “So, if the time is peaceful for faith, then a person, mortifying evil passions and lusts with virtue, will follow the Lord in this way ( ἀκολουθεῖ τῷ Κυρίῳ), raising his cross. During persecution, despising both his life and his soul, betraying his faith (ὑπὲρ τῆς εὐσεβείας) [literally “for piety”], so he lifts up his cross and follows the Lord from behind (ὀπίσω τοῦ Κυρίου), and in this way will inherit eternal life” (325D). Developing the teaching outlined in the words of the Lord in Matthew 10:39, St. Gregory says that he who has lost his soul for the sake of the Lord will become a sharer of the Resurrection and will rise to eternal life, being “heavenly and eternal even in body (καὶ κατὰ σῶμα οὐράνιος καὶ, αἰώνιος)” (328Α) (not speaking of the soul); It is obvious that a person has no other way of salvation other than sacrificial self-denial in the name of faith, hope and love. This path is difficult. But on this path a person has powerful helpers (along with God and the Sacraments) from among the members of the heavenly Church: Palamas especially dwells on the issue of veneration of saints. How should it be done? Palamas himself poses this question to his listeners: “Let us also, brethren, honor the saints of God, but how will we honor them? – If, in imitation of them (κατὰ μίμησιν ἐκείνων), we cleanse ourselves “from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit” and in the continuation of this life (τέως) we move away (ἀποστῶμεν) from vices, thanks to abstinence (τῆς ἀποχῆς) from them being led to holiness (πρὸς ἁγιοσύνην φερόμενοι)..." (329С). So, a person who lives in imitation of the saints is able to achieve holiness. Here is an even deeper (and belonging to the most secret layer of what in the Ancient Church was called disciplina arcana) justification of the Christian way of life. The saints (and the Lord Himself) promote those who courageously endure adversity; Guided by this understanding of the passage under discussion, the passive participle φερόμενοι in it should be attributed precisely to this - divine, but accomplished through the mediation of the saints (for, as Palamas knew very well and himself taught, “the common and united glory, the Kingdom and this radiance are with God and His saints” 897 (448A)) - the leadership of the life of a fighter for faith, that ἀγωνιστής about which St. speaks in the passage quoted above. Pheoliptus. Before us is one of the long-standing themes of monastic literature: the striving for holiness as a return to the original state of man that existed before the Fall. (The specificity of Palamas is that he taught about the future bliss of the righteous as superior to the state of Adam, about which see § 7.) As an example, we can cite the “Ascetic Word” blessed. Stephen of Thebaid, a monk of the Egyptian desert, who in matters of anthropology adhered to the tradition of Macarius of Egypt. St. Stephen gives his novice the following advice: “...strive, child, to always remain in the holiness of your eyes and heart and return to your original state (εἰς τὴν ἀρχήν σου) of little children, about whom God said: “Of such is the kingdom of heaven” (Matthew 19:14)” 898. The saints teach clearly: “...he who seeks the Lord Christ steadily strives towards the cross, conquering all the temptations that come his way, until he reaches the Crucified One” 899. Developing this teaching, which was common to the fathers of monasticism, St. Gregory Palamas preaches it as universally valid for all Christians. It can be said that, along with his immediate predecessors, condensed information about which Meyendorff prefaced his main work 900, Saint Gregory Palamas was a renovator of evangelical and monastic ideals in his difficult time. In an era when the socio-political and economic instability of the once great Empire pushed some intellectuals to move away from the Orthodox Church (let the image of Demetrius Kydonis serve as an example here), the Archbishop of Thessaloniki teaches us to endure impending difficulties and temptations with steadfastness and resignation, finding in them the hardening of the soul and spirit: “So, disasters ( αἱ κακώσεις ) bring benefit to those who endure [them, serving] with faith for the correction of sins, exercise [in virtue] (πρὸς γυμνασίαν), testing, understanding of this life, full of adversity (τῆς τοῦ βίου τούτον ταλαιπωρίας), to the intention to ardently desire (ἐπιθυμεῖν διαπύρως) and constantly seek (ζητεῖν ἐπιμόνως) that eternally lasting Sonship and Redemption with truly new (καινὴν ὄντως) life and bliss” (213D–216A). So, trials strengthen a person in faith, preparing him for the Kingdom of God and helping him clarify the spiritual component of his existence. Just as gold is tempered in a crucible, a Christian ascetic is tempered through labor and adversity... Here, as elsewhere in Palamas, soteriology is inseparable from asceticism, it is guided by it and draws inspiration from it. In this strictly Christological perspective, there is no place left for external and psychological types of mysticism, as Meyendorff 902 rightly notes. All the more interesting is the use in this passage - in a positive sense - of the verb ἐπιθυμέω (to thirst, to lust). It would seem that so many words have been said about the fight against lusts and lusts - and suddenly St. Gregory Palamas invites his listeners... to wish! - But what? In a soteriological context, words change their meaning (in this case, as we see, to the opposite), and this is not the only example. It is even more striking that the same verb is used by Palamas when speaking about God: God, says the saint, “... desired (ἐπεθύμησε) the mysterious beauty of this Ever-Virgin...” (461D). Thus, the researcher of the teachings of Palamas and the language of his homilies comes across the thought: is it possible to derive from these, albeit brief, data the advice that the saint gives to his flock, as if by chance: to turn the passions and impulses of the lower parts of the soul into higher, spiritual and absolute values ​​and thereby somehow justify the existence of these parts? We will answer this question in the next paragraph, when we analyze Palamas’s definition of virtue. But even now one can notice that since, according to the patristic teaching, “what is not received is not healed,” and nothing in man is created as superfluous, then it is necessary - through perfection - to purify these potentialities of the soul and open for the whole person the entrance to the Kingdom of God 903. So we see that St. Gregory Palamas, in his sermons, seemingly aimed at a purely secular audience 904, developed a holistic ascetic teaching, consistent in a Christocentric spirit. It asserts that salvation is possible for all Christians - monks and laity, for which it is necessary to follow the program of asceticism determined by the saint in accordance with the tradition of the Fathers 905. This following can (and should) be carried out at several levels: – active and persistent resistance to evil, beginning with abstinence from it; – following the teachings of the Gospel; - imitation of the Lord and His saints; – finally, one more point should be added to this ascetic program; switching the lower, passion-contaminated potentialities of the soul to higher objects and goals, and above all to God and His Kingdom. However, this side of the views was not systematically expressed by the teacher of silence. Perhaps the greatest contribution of St. is in the development and dissemination (through preaching) of this program. Gregory Palamas into the Greek theocentrically colored doctrine of man, or anthropology. Specific following the path indicated by the saint presupposes the development in a person of the skills of virtue and participation in the sacramental life of the Church. The building of Christian achievement is crowned by the vision of Divine light. The following sections of the chapter are devoted to these aspects of Palamas’ teaching. § 6. The path of salvation as following Christ. The doctrine of virtue. Classification of virtues How do you think you can be a partaker of His glory when you do not want to be a partaker of His blasphemous death? Rev. Simeon the New Theologian 906. This following of the Lord and imitation of the Lord has its limit in becoming like Him 907. This topic is important to us in a number of ways. Firstly, it is inextricably linked with the theme of the adoption of the righteous to God and entry into the inheritance of the Kingdom of God, that is, with the eschatological finale of history (both personal and the history of mankind as a whole). Secondly, it is in the categories of becoming like God and approaching Him through faith, good deeds and aspirations that the definition of virtue given by Palamas develops. St. Gregory speaks very clearly about this: “...thanks to good inclinations (ἐπιθυμιῶν) and deeds [man] becomes like God (ἐζομοιοῦται τῷ Θεῷ), adopted by Him ( υἱοποιεῖται τούτῳ) and becomes the heir of His Kingdom. After all, the Lord shows that virtue is likeness to God (ὁμοιότης πρὸς τὸν Θεόν ἐστίν ἡ ἀρετή)” (352C). The mention of “good inclinations” here is not at all accidental. Taken in comparison with the Triads (II.2.19; II.2.24), it shows that for the teacher of silence, the purification of the passionate part of the soul was equivalent not to cutting it off, but to changing it for the better. “For impassive people,” we read in “Triads” (II. 2.24), “the passionate part of their soul does not cease to live and act for the sake of the best, and they do not kill it” 908. This teaching of Palamas about salvation by works stands in direct connection with his idea of ​​​​preserving the image and restoring the likeness of God in man in the course of the personal history of salvation of each believer. “Let us preserve,” the archbishop addresses his flock, “with the help of virtues, His image and likeness... Let us begin to bear fruit for Him through good deeds, so that we may remain the vineyard of the Lord of hosts, and, moreover, newly planted [and] beloved. Let us fulfill the good will of God... “Let us cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit,” so that we may be called the house of God” (344C). This theme of purification and assimilation to God through faith and the acquisition of virtues, the first place of which is occupied by repentance (in fact, this is not just one particular virtue, but something broader - the process of changing the personality to a new, spiritual life, which involves the removal of old impurities and the reorientation of all the forces of the soul towards God and the Kingdom of God) - a theme crowned with an eschatological finale - runs like a red thread through all the works of Palamas, including his homilies. Therefore, one cannot but agree with the conclusion of modern researchers that the main content of the theological and pastoral work of St. Gregory was the defense of reality itself, the Christian faith and the Christian experience of life with God in the face of external danger and internal threats (Barlaamism, political intrigue), as well as sending down to the flock, tired of endless conflicts on socio-economic and political grounds, from the civil war of 1341–1347, the plague, which, apparently, raged in Constantinople and Thessalonica in 1348–1350 909, difficulties with food supplies, etc., new spiritual strength. And one can only guess about the amazement and inspiration that gripped at least part of the listeners of the Archbishop of Thessaloniki, when among this motley and motley crowd, which included both Bogomils and the poor, a voice suddenly rang out about something very important and main - about the Divine, which is present here and now, next to us, so that at the cost of certain efforts we can get closer to Him. “For in this life it is possible ... thanks to the fruits of repentance to unite with the Son of God and become like Him ( ) - To the One who can produce worthy ones from the unworthy and through Himself adopt as sons to the Highest Father (τῷ ἀτωτάτῳ Πατρὶ), making [such] heirs and joint heirs of that glory and Kingdom that [is common] between Him and the Father” (388AV). These words are imbued with faith in the reality of deification, in its accessibility already in this life, which has been repeatedly confirmed by the experience of saints (including Palamas himself). They trace a certain logic of development of the patristic Tradition: St. Ignatius, Irenaeus, Athanasius, the Cappadocians and Maximus the Confessor defined the goal of Christian life as deification, sanctification and being with God, showing dogmatically and spiritually-ascetically that this is possible; Rev. Simeon the New Theologian placed special emphasis on the fact that the vision of God (which follows and from the experience of which deification follows) is possible in this life 910; finally, St. Gregory Palamas with the utmost clarity affirms the possibility of becoming like God already in this life, followed by salvation in the life to come. And sad, according to Palamas (in this he agrees with all the Fathers of Western and Eastern Christianity), is the fate of those who have moved away and do not follow this only path of life - life with God. “Indeed,” in the words of the saint, “if the alienness of actions and morals destroys carnal kinship, depriving blood sons of sonship, then will not our dissimilarity with Christ in actions and morals distance us from adoption by God, taking us to the opposite camp - after all, in the flesh we cannot raise our race to Christ?” (385D–388A). As for the path of life, most of the homily of the teacher of silence is devoted to the description of certain fragments and components of this path, as well as its various stages. At the same time, speaking in general and therefore global categories, the most important components of this path for a Christian are faith, virtue and repentance. These components of the Christian way of life are inseparable from each other: one who rightly believes cannot help but demonstrate and realize his faith in deeds, the most important of which are repentance and cleansing from the passions and vices that overwhelm us. St. Gregory Palamas tells us about this: “Those who rightly (ὀρθῶς) believe in our Lord Jesus Christ prove their faith (ἐπιδεικνύμενοι) by deeds and preserve themselves - or even, [along with this], cleanse themselves from the filthiness of what has been said (1 Cor. 6:9 ) sins, and also develops in himself the opposite virtues to these vices (τὰς ἀντιθέτους τῶν κακῶν ἀρετὰς) - abstinence, chastity, love, mercy, justice, righteousness (love of truth, τὴν ἀλήθειαν) - everyone, having risen, will hear from the Heavenly King Himself: “Come, you blessed of My Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world...” (Matthew 25:34); and so they will co-reign with Christ (συμβασιλεύσουσι τῷ Χριστῷ), having inherited the Kingdom of Heaven and unshakable, living forever in the ineffable and unevening light (ἐν φωτὶ ἀποῤῥήτῳ καὶ ἀνεσπέρῳ), never interrupted by any night, and coexisting with [the former] saints from the ages in inexpressible bliss (ἐν ἀῤῥήτῳ τρυφῇ ) in the bosom of Abraham, where no torment, sorrow or groaning penetrates" (340CD). Such are those who have restored the likeness of God in themselves, and it is to them, one must think, that the words of the saint apply: “So, having found the likeness of God (πρὸς τὸν Θεόν ἔχων τὴν ὁμοιότητα) with the help of love and other virtues and[, such Thus,] having acquired [ineffable] wealth by his deeds - having God as [his] Father (πατέρα ... πλουτήσας τὸν Θεὸν), will be the heir of the Kingdom of his father” (352D). Developing the same theme in the context of the doctrine of hesychia, St. Callistus Angelicud is one of the closest spiritual heirs of St. Gregory Palamas - wrote: “In general, such is every one of those who, [like] so great 911, have worked [to] return to the iconic (εἰκωνικήν) likeness of the divine Archetype (Prototype. - D. M.) and the supernatural grace of the adoption of God, supported by the effort of the [Holy] Spirit..." 912. As we see, eschatological notes begin to clearly dominate in the anthropology of Palamas as the meaningful and semantic thread of the homilies approaches the cherished finale... Subsequent hesychast theology will further strengthen these notes. But the Archbishop of Thessalonica writes not only for hesychast monks, as was sometimes (tendentiously and not without bias) stated in the literature. He writes for anyone who will listen. And therefore we find in him a consistent, step-by-step description of the main stages of Christian experience, accompanied by instructions of a fundamental nature: “... faith will be beneficial if we live according to conscience (κατὰ συνείδησιν), purifying ourselves by confession and repentance 913, and putting into action the terms of that [agreement] that we concluded with God at divine baptism.” (385A). It is not difficult to understand what these conditions are, taking into account the above. We are talking primarily about abstaining from evil in all its forms, keeping the commandments and living according to the Gospel. A little further, Palamas speaks directly about this: “So what is this commandment of God, now (νῦν) offered to us? Repentance" (392B) 914. This is the same commandment that has stood before humanity since the Fall, as becomes clear from the context of the sermon (392B). Therefore, this νῦν absorbs all the layers of human history - history as such, which should, from the history of the drama of passions and sin, become the history of redemption... And the more piercing are Palamas’ calls for universal repentance, of which we will find many in the sermon: “Let us know, brothers, [the] multitude and [all] the severity (τὸ πλῆθος καὶ τὸ μέγεθος) of our sins! And let each [of you] turn out to have departed (ἐπιστραφήτω) from his carnal thoughts (cf.: 156A; 296A. - D.M.) and turn (ἐπιστρεψάτω) to the Lord. Let us repent from our [whole] souls, let us heal ourselves from bad habits and sin-loving will φιλαμαρτήμονος γνώμης )....” (492D–493Α). Here, as in the entire Greek patriotic tradition (in accordance with a different interpretation than in the West, Rom. 5:12 915) the consequences of the Fall are considered not in terms of guilt that must be expiated, but a disease from which it is necessary to be cured. Therefore, the saint’s calls for repentance and cleansing (read healing) of body and soul are inextricably linked with each other, uniting in one common call: “Let us love and begin to acquire works of repentance: humble thoughts (φρόνημα), contrition (κατάνυξιν) and spiritual mourning ( πένθος πνευματικὸν) 916, a heart meek and full of mercy, loving justice, seeking purity, peaceful and creating peace (Matthew 5:9), enduring (φερέπονον) and instilling joy in those who [endures suffering] for truth and righteousness [during] persecutions, executions, reproaches, slander and disasters...” (392D–393A) 917. From these words it is clear that the heart, in accordance with the tradition of St. Macarius of Egypt 918 - is considered by Palamas as the spiritual and vital center of the personality, the starting point and focus of its experiences and emotional life. To achieve that purity, which is followed by the vision of the light of God, the constant purification of all the forces and potencies of the soul is required: “Shall we not,” asks the saint, “purify the eye (τὸν ... ὀφθαλμὸν) of the soul, abstaining from “all filthiness of the flesh and spirit” (again a familiar quote! - D. M .), to see this Light, surpassing the sun - and even, moreover, to become children (τέκνα) of This Light and other lights - by communion? (296A). In this affirmation of communion with God as the goal of Christian life, Byzantine theology of the 13th–14th centuries. (St. Gregory of Cyprus, St. Gregory Palamas, Patriarch Nilus in "Encomia" Palamas) follows Ven. Maximus the Confessor, who taught that the true calling of a Christian is “to become by communion all that God is by nature [of His]” 919. There is no doubt that ideas of this kind, being decisive among Athonite monasticism and the enlightened part of the church hierarchy, were close to ordinary believers, to whom the sermon was addressed. The above definition is also important because God is defined by Palamas as the source of all virtues: “This Light, being for everyone the sun of truth, chastity, peace, compassion, long-suffering, love and all virtue in general (ἁπλῶς), makes partakers (μετόχους) those who remain faithful to Him (adhere to Him, τοὺς αὐτῷ προσανέχοντας )" (384B). On the other hand, the unity of God and the faithful, God and the Church has long been described in the Christian tradition 920 in terms of spiritual marriage (cf. Eph. 5:32). Therefore, the second definition of virtue given by Palamas reads: “The robe of spiritual marriage is [that is] virtue (ἡ ἀρετὴ) ...” (524C). Based on the teaching of the Apostle Paul on the putting off of the old man (Eph.4:24; Col.3:10) and on the biblical patristic tradition, Palamas emphasizes the need for a person to maintain purity of both soul and body: “And since each soul has as a vestment the body associated with it, then he who has not kept it [in purity] or has not purified it in this life through abstinence, purity (ἀγνείας) and chastity, [here turns out to be] unsuitable (ἀχρεῖον) and there (in the life to come. - D. M.) he will be unworthy of that imperishable bridal chamber, [so that he himself will be] the culprit of his overthrow from there” (Ibid. D). The teaching about the spiritual path of man in general and the Christian in particular, about the meaning of this path and its completion naturally turns into the doctrine of reward according to merit, consistent with the main idea of ​​the Eastern Fathers on this matter (especially clearly expressed by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and later - in the 15th century - St. Gennady Scholarius) that by his actions a person himself determines his subsequent fate 921: “...for the Lord will reward everyone according to his deeds - those who, with a contrite heart 922, through the works of repentance, steadfastly seek remission of sins (τῶν ἡμαρτημένων) - peace (ἄνεσιν) and joy, eternal life and the ineffable Kingdom; those who remain insensitive [to the verb of Truth] and unrepentant will [be due] sorrow and adversity (στενοχώρια), an unbearable and endless punishment” (373AV; cf. Ps. 1:6; etc.). As is explained here (Ibid. C), it is unbelief that is the root of sin; but you can also be healed from unbelief. To do this, you need to believe in God and follow Him, be ready to respond to His call: the healing of the eyes of the soul, says Palamas, is nothing more than “the transition (μετάθεσις) from unbelief to faith” (380C). It is thanks to faith, the teacher of silence never tires of repeating, that we are (he addresses the Thessalonians, but his words can be extended to Orthodox Christians as a whole 923 one people and one Church. It is thanks to faith that we are a new sacred people, and with this dignity of ours Palamas connects the aspirations of the future century: “May it [be] given to us, just as we are now, the chosen people of God ( ἐκλεκτὸς Θεοῦ λαὸς), sacred race (γένος ἱερὸν), Church of the living God, separated from all the infidels and wicked, so in the next century will be separated from the tares, numbered among the camp (τῇ ... μερίδι) saved in Christ Himself, our Lord, who is blessed forever and ever” (341A). And this very unusual solemnity in the formulation of the seemingly long-standing theme of the New Israel, which God gathered for Himself from the pagans, and the somewhat unusual nature of the final doxology - everything points to the importance and dogmatic (and not just occasional) significance of this theme for the consciousness of St. Gregory, and the fact that he diligently sought to convey relevant thoughts to the body of believers - to the people as a whole; to the people, whom he wanted to make the guardian and bearer of churchliness. We are not talking about any claims of a political or chauvinistic nature; on the contrary, a systematic consideration and analysis of this topic in the context of the theology of St. Gregory and his immediate predecessors (St. Gregory of Cyprus) betrays a dogmatic background of such importance that without mentioning it, all talk about becoming like God would remain nothing more than words: the sacrament of the Eucharist. It is difficult to express in a few words what this Sacrament of Sacraments, this “Holy of Holies” meant for the saint; however, in relation to the topic of redemption, final salvation and entry into a new, soteriological-eschatological reality that interests us, this can be done in two words: we are “saints” (in the sense of accepting the holiness of God, sanctification) because we are redeemed by the blood of Christ and partake of His life-giving Body and Blood in the Sacrament of the Eucharist. This is exactly how St. explains the idea of ​​the chosenness of believers entering the Body of Christ. Gregory of Cyprus, in whom there is a surprisingly (and perhaps most) set of similar expressions close to Palamas. Having described heavenly bliss, St. Gregory of Cyprus proclaims: “...what [gifts] to receive communion, what to taste, may we all, without exception, be worthy of the chosen tribe of Christ, the holy people (ὁ ἐκλεκτὸς λαὸς τοῦ Χριστοῦ, τὸ ἅγιον ἔθνος) 924, royal priesthood (1 Pet. 2:9), redeemed and strengthened (περιτειχισϑέντες) by the Most Precious Blood of our Creator and Savior [Jesus] Christ..." 925. Here it is assumed that the communion of this Blood, with which the Lord once redeemed our race, continues to be performed - together with the acceptance of the Body - in the Sacrament of the Eucharist; what the theologian emphasizes is the connection between the initial event of the Sacrifice of the Cross and the Resurrection with the subsequent sacramental, liturgical and spiritual life of the Church. This connection remained (and remains) relevant and continuous for Christianity at all times. It finds its living and direct reflection in the homilies of St. Gregory Palamas. St. Gregory Palamas develops a very realistic and at the same time sublime teaching about the Eucharist. Although he rarely speaks on this topic, the significance of the relevant fragments only increases from this. First of all, the saint emphasizes the fact that thanks to the Sacraments (mainly baptism and the Eucharist - these two peaks of sacramental life 926) we are united into a single body of the Church, invisibly crowned by Her Head - Christ. The corresponding three fragments are very close to each other. From a comparison of these texts, several important conclusions can be drawn: 1. The teaching of St. Gregory Palamas is based on biblical texts (the second passage is on 1 Cor. 12:27); 2. The saint affirms the inextricable connection between baptism and the Eucharist: the first Sacrament serves as a necessary condition for receiving the second; 3. The most important factor supporting the unity of the Church and determining the effectiveness of the Eucharist for everyone who receives it is the unity of faith in Christ professed by the Church (as a whole and by each of its members individually). This unity is obviously (although it is not directly stated 927) contrasted with the fragmentation of the world according to passions and elements. Therefore, if a person wishes to be saved, he must strive to unite himself internally; gather your mind and feelings together, calm your passions, and turn the passionate potentialities and impulses of your soul into activities in the name of the Highest Good. From here follows the teaching about the need for attentive presence at the liturgy in general (as a reproduction in breve of the history of salvation) - and not just at the moment of communion: if someone stands before the altar, “gathering his thoughts (τὴν ... διάνοιαν) and directing (ἀνατείνων) 928 it to God... then he will certainly (ἀσφαλῶς) see the Lord Himself with the eyes of reason (τῆς διανοίας) and – I dare say – [even] with bodily [eyes]” 929 (272CD). This vision is only the initial stage of unification achieved through the Eucharist: “...and thanks to the contemplation and communion of these [Holy Gifts] (διὰ τῆς πρὸς αὐτὰ θέας καὶ μεθέξεως) the whole becomes ( ἐκτελεῖται) godlike (θεοειδὴς)” (Ibid. D). In the Discourse on the Entry of the Mother of God into the Holy of Holies, the theme of communion is connected with the theme of the adoption of the faithful by God, already familiar to us from the homily of Palamas: the teacher of silence calls St. Gifts “... the food that bestows immortality and makes those who partake of [him] sons of God ( τροφὴν ... ἀπαθανατίζονσαν καὶ υἱοὺς θεοῦ τοὺς μετέχοντας ποιοῦσαν) - not fellowshippers (εἰσποιήτους) simply by name, but in the communion of the Holy Spirit (oh unspeakable gift!) related to the Flesh and Blood of God ( προαφκείωμένονς) with God and with each other” (Econ. pp. 179–180). The last phrase deserves special attention. In it, the saint emphasizes that it is closeness (kinship) with God that makes us truly close to each other. It is through the communion of the Flesh and Blood of Christ that we become each other's half-brothers and sisters, having Christ as our common Father and Brother (the latter designation is associated with the understanding of the co-corporation of Christ with believers, achieved through the Eucharist, which Palamas developed with the support of the Apostle Paul 930). The Eucharist gives us access to heaven and makes us partakers of the Light that the apostles saw on Mount Tabor 931 - this idea is substantiated in detail by the saint already in the “Triads” 932. This means that, receiving His deifying energy and grace along with the deified flesh of the Lord, we become able to potentially see the Light of the Lord; for this vision to become actual and experientially achievable, it is necessary to “cleanse the eye of the soul” (cf. above). A reliable basis for such a vision is a real union with the deifying energy and grace of God, which is realized in the Sacrament of the Eucharist 933. It remains only to add that a necessary condition for the effectiveness of the Eucharist, according to Palamas, is its conscious acceptance, which presupposes at least a minimal degree of that spiritual enlightenment, which at the highest stages can lead the believer to the perception of the light of God. Starting from John 6:63, Palamas says: “The Holy Communion is called “Mysteries” for the reason that it is not only what we see, but also something spiritual and incomprehensible... if you look only at what is clearly visible, then you have not gained any benefit; if you look at the spirit, that is, you see this Bread presented in a spiritual way, then, having received communion, you will be revived” 934. Although attention has already been repeatedly drawn to the closeness of these ideas with the teachings of St. Simeon the New Theologian 935, it is still useful to quote from the Fourteenth Ethical Word of Simeon in order to give the reader the opportunity to feel the unity of Tradition connecting the two Fathers: “If in feeling and knowledge, then you worthily receive communion; if not so... you eat and drink unworthily... only those who are worthy of the participation of the Divine flesh of the Lord, the revelation of the intelligent touch of the invisible Divinity in the intelligent eyes and lips to see and eat, know that the Lord is good... They are united to Christ, who is double in nature, in a twofold way, becoming co-corporeal with Him and accomplices of glory and Divinity "936. This requirement should be considered together with the words of Palamas about daily communion: “All these were images (τύποι) [of the sacred Sacraments... and drinking performed] among us - the Body and Blood of Christ, of which we partake, in order [to] say [and about this], every [day] (ὧν ἡμεῖς καθ’ ἐκάστην ὡς εἰπεῖν μετέχομεν ...” (481BC). Even if the last phrase is understood simply as an indication of the fact of performing the Divine Liturgy several times a week, there is no doubt that Palamas calls his listeners to a high spiritual life, a conscious and personal (and not just an impersonal-ritual!) approach to the sacraments of the Christian faith. At the center of this life is frequent and conscious communion. Palamas reinforces his words with his own example: he himself, leading the life of a hesychast monk on the Holy Mountain, as is known, went to church every Saturday and Sunday to take part in the liturgy and partake of the Holy Sacraments 937. In the light of what has been said, it becomes clear that the doctrine of the Sacraments, although outlined by the saint in the homilies only in a few strokes, belongs to the core of his theological views, and it is this “Christocentric and sacramental mysticism” that “is the main justification for the asceticism of hesychasm” 938. A little is said not only about what is unimportant. They also talk a little about the main thing - so as not to hurt or stain the shrine with awkward human words... The teaching of St. Gregory Palamas about the Eucharist is the basis without which it is difficult (if not impossible) to understand the “highest” stages in his theology - the doctrine of the enlightenment of the mind by the light of God and the deification of man. So, the main content of the anthropology of the teacher of silence expressed in the homily and its internal core is the doctrine of imitation of the Lord and active following of Him, which following is crowned (at the highest levels) by perfect unity with God - by grace. This idea is formulated by Palamas in different contexts and at different “levels of depth” and argumentation. Here I would like to note at least three such levels, which seem to be the most important: 1. It is possible for a person to become good. 2. A person can become a son of God by becoming like God in deeds. 3. Finally, for the deepest part of the audience (perhaps for the monastics?) Palamas speaks directly: a person must follow Christ, crucifying his flesh with passions and lusts; to be crucified with Him - in order to be glorified with Him. There is no contradiction between these three levels of revelation of the basic Christian idea. They represent, as it were, three steps that the teacher of silence successively goes through, mentally “measuring himself” with his audience, assessing its capabilities and ability to assimilate his words - but without deviating one iota from the Gospel gospel. It would be easiest to interpret Palamas’ anthropology as purely monastic, referring, for example, to his words that we are called to lead “an angelic way of life on earth” (Conversations... Part 3. P. 148), and comparing them with the saint’s saying in the “Word to John and Theodore the Philosophers”: “...perfect (i.e. Divine. - D. M.) nature there is something hidden (κρύφιόντι)... If the monastic community approaches it more than all pious communities...” 939 But none of the Fathers argues with the last statement, starting at least from the 3rd century; As for the attitude towards the world and the life of Christians in the world (in the world), then everything is more complicated and depends to a much greater extent on the nuances of the worldview of a particular author. The relevant nuances of Palamas’s worldview have not yet been well revealed, and it is the homilies that provide very favorable ground for such disclosure and - thereby - clarification of the theological question of paramount importance: is it possible to be saved, and therefore to lead a sinless life in a sinful world? Therefore, let's not rush to conclusions. Let us consider the textual expression of all three levels of disclosure of the “mimetic” idea. The doctrine of acquiring goodness through the acquisition and, so to speak, “cultivation” (i.e., cultivation) of virtues in oneself is most fundamentally connected with the doctrine of free will: “God, creating man autocratic (free, αὐτεξούσιον), honored him with great care, so that [he] would incline not to evil, but to good (good, τὸ ἀγαθὸν), properly (καλῶς) taking advantage of one’s autocracy (freedom, τῷ αὐτεξονοίῳ). That is why, when creating him, he created him in His own image and likeness, so that he, looking at the good Archetype, would not fall away from this goodness (τῆς ἀγαθότητος), and God, in His turn...justly would show him in the future the abundance of His kindness ( πλουσίαν ... τὴν ... χρηστότητα ). And again, [its] abundance attracts a person to [achieve] - through imitation (ἐκ μιμήσεως) - commensurate with Him and in accordance with [human strength] goodness ( πρὸς τὸν σύμμετρον αὐτῷ καὶ κατάλληλον ἀγαθότητα ). For, truly, it is possible for a person to be good (ἀγαθὸν) - in the image of the Creator and by imitation of Him (κατ’ εἰκόνα τοῦ κτίσαντος ἐκ τῆς πρὸς τοῦτον μιμήσεως)" (449ВС). In these lines, the doctrine of imitation of God is associated with the idea of ​​the image of God in man, thus correlating with the doctrine of image and likeness as two complementary and dynamic realities. In this sense, imitation of the Lord can and should be understood as a path to man’s restoration of the likeness of God within himself. At the same time, the ontological gap between the Creator and the creature remains indestructible, as Palamas points out: “But it is impossible for any of the people [to become good] to the same exact degree as God is good” (Ibid. C). This is how the mimetic idea is revealed at the first of the levels we have identified. But a right-thinking, believing and acting person is capable of becoming a son of God: “... first a person becomes a son of God, worthy to call on God as a Father, and then - in this way - he rightfully becomes the heir of His Kingdom. How does a person become a son of God? By likening (διὰ τῆς ... ὁμοιότητας) in deeds” (352B). These words reveal the active, energetically praxeological nature of imitation of God (taking its source from the words of the Lord Himself; see: Matthew 7:16–27; etc.); The final status of man is also clarified - that likeness to the Creator, which is the goal of imitation. It is also revealed what the corresponding deeds should be: “... but let us live as He (the Lord. - D.M.) lived... and, having taken up [our] cross, we will follow Him, crucifying the flesh with passions and lusts, in order to be glorified with Him and to be resurrected, and after the resurrection to be ascended to Him, just as He today ascended to the Father (ἵνα "(296ΑΒ; Homily 22nd, second for the Ascension of the Lord). “If we are ashamed to imitate His passions, which He endured for us, - according to the testimony of St. Simeon the New Theologian - and suffer as He suffered, then it is clear that we will not be partakers of His glory" 940. So, throughout the entire path of salvation (and, therefore, throughout the entire path of life), the Lord must remain a Model for a Christian and his Guide to eternal life. And can a Christian - alone, on his own - endure this difficult path without help from above? Answer of St. Gregory Palamas' answer to this question is itself contained in the form of a question: “You see that we cannot boldly express (dare to, παῤῥησιάσασθαι) faith in Christ and confession [of Him as our God] without His strength and assistance on His part (τῆς παρ’ αὐτοῦ δυνάμεως καὶ συνέργειας), nor our Lord Jesus Christ will come out in our support (οὔτε ... παῤῥησιάσεται ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν) in the next century, will not bring us to the highest Father and will not assimilate [to Him] without receiving the firstfruits (τὰς ἀφορμάς) from us?” (321D). What Palamas expresses in the form of a rhetorical question, although his thought remains completely clear, was revealed by the previous Fathers of monasticism in simple and clear statements. Let's turn to Rev. Simeon the Studite: “[One must] be ready every day to accept all sorrow... for through sorrow one gains boldness (παρρησίαν) that is not shameful [hereinafter quoted from 1 Cor. 2:9]... this will be [the lot of] those who show through sorrow (τοἰς ἐπιδεικνυμένοις) patience, with the assistance of grace (συνεργούσης τῆς χάριτος); for without grace nothing lends itself to good completion (οὐ δύναταί τι κατορθωθῆναι)” 941. But on the other hand, those who endure sorrows await a good reward from God, and in affirming this, Palamas sums up the entire Greek patristic tradition: “If we with all our strength (πάσῃ δυνάμει) provide (ἐπιδειξώμεθα) 942 good deeds [to our suffering brothers], then God in return (lit. - rewarding: ἀμεφόμενος) will show us benefits with all his might (πάσῃ δυνάμει)” (533A). Contrary to this “symmetrical” construction of the phrase, reward from God, as Palamas shows (see especially § 7 and 8), will be much greater than our modest efforts... These are the general principles of the aretology of St. Gregory Palamas. We see that they are consistent with the spirit of the Gospel gospel and with the tradition of Orthodox theology, being moved by the same Spirit; It seems that the works of Palamas show the greatest closeness with the monastic-ascetic theology of the Sinai, Studite and Late Athos hesychasts, Sts. Isaac the Syrian and Maximus the Confessor. This closeness and, moreover, kinship in the Holy Spirit was part of the self-awareness of the later Athonite practitioners of mental prayer: “Always read about silence and prayer,” advises the saint. Gregory of Sinai to his disciple, - ... from Climacus, from Saint Isaac, from Saint Maximus, from the New Theologian, from his disciple Stiphatus, from Hesychius, from Philotheus of Sinai and from those who [wrote] about the same thing...” 943 It seems certain (taking into account Tr. I. 2. 12) that the same set of names - including Theoliptus and Nicephorus Solitary - was also basic for Palamas. It was this ancient monastic-mystical teaching that he conveyed (sometimes – for those “infant in mind” – in a somewhat hidden form, but at times expressing himself extremely frankly) to his flock. At the same time, it was assumed that those who are able to perceive the word and draw the necessary conclusions from it will perceive it to the maximum (perhaps they will become monks if they live in the world); those who are weaker and less decisive will each learn this teaching in their own measure. The ideal (Christ) and the goal of the path are indicated; From now on, it is a matter of choice and decision for every Christian to follow this path or not. “The boundary between the Old and New Testaments is overcome only by the free will of man - when he chooses what God does not require, but only advises” 944. Let's say a few words about the order and meaning of the virtues according to the teachings of St. Gregory Palamas. The following notes serve as a kind of preface to a systematic presentation of references to various virtues scattered throughout the text of Palamas's homilies in the form of a table (indicating the most important places where this or that virtue is mentioned); This kind of table could, I think, serve as a key for someone who wants to find out how St. interpreted this or that virtue. Gregory Palamas. Perhaps it can be argued that in the teaching of virtues, Palamas is the least “original” in the modern European meaning of the word. All his instructions follow from the Gospel sermon of the Savior: “Repent, the Kingdom of Heaven is drawing near” (Matthew 3:23 cum locis parallelis), “The preparation and beginning of repentance,” Palamas continues with his characteristic systematicity, “consists in self-reproach, in confession and in abstinence from evil” (Econ. P. 67; Conversations... Part 3. P. 61). A very similar teaching about the 4 virtues - a kind of “wings” with which we ascend to God - is developed by the saint in two more places in the homily in almost identical expressions: A legitimate assumption arises that in 365CD (29th homily) Palamas shortens the text of 120CD (10th homily), especially since both fragments are based on the same gospel episode - the healing of the paralytic in Capernaum (Matthew 9:1-8; Mark 2:1-12; Luke 5:17-26). Replacing the term ἡ ἐξαγόρευσις, which has a more specific monastic meaning (daily telling an elder about thoughts - in order to find out whether they are good or evil) 945, with a more familiar and universal meaning - 7] ἡ ἐξομολόγησις – also seems to be motivated by the context and the wider range of Palamas’ addressees (which was not limited to monastics). It seems to me that this example confirms the assumption made in the Introduction that Palamas prepared for his sermons in writing, taking into account the interests and demands of the most different segments of the audience - both individually and all together. It can be said that in this impartiality, in his constantly demonstrated readiness to take the point of view of each of the members of the Church of Christ, Saint Gregory Palamas shows us an example of pastoral zeal. As for the content of the four-part scheme, it is clear that we are talking about a complete change in lifestyle: 4 virtues affect all three time layers of a person’s life - past, present and future. In other places Palamas clarifies and supplements what has been said. Thus, self-contempt must be associated with the awareness of one’s own failures (a synonym for the term “sins”), which precedes repentance (361CD) 946. Without this awareness, it is difficult to acquire a spirit of contrition and self-reproach, which, without developing into despondency, serve as an impetus for the individual to a new life. In some places Palamas gives quite lengthy lists of virtues; Here we will pay attention to only two of them (the corresponding data is included in the table). Having listed a number of vices in the Fifteenth Homily (180A) (see Table 3), the teacher of silence calls for deviating from them and developing (ἐργαζέσθω - “let him [in the sense of “everyone”] develop”) benefits. “Which ones? Temperance, fasting, chastity, justice, mercy, long-suffering, love, humility - so that we may worthily partake of the Lamb of God sacrificed for us and thus receive a guarantee of incorruptibility...” (180A). The last two virtues from the list (along with confession and repentance) were considered by Palamas to be the highest (about which a little later); Eschatological motifs also permeate all his homilies, from the first to the last. Another time, explaining the meaning of repentance in the 28th homily, Palamas lists what specific works of repentance (see above) he has in mind: “... but [one must] despise the present, adhere to future [goods] (ἀντέχεσθαι τῶν μελλόντων), fight against passions, strive for virtue, abstain in everything, stay awake (ἐπαγρυπνεῖν) in prayers to God, abstain from unrighteous income, be merciful to those who are mistaken in relation to you, benevolent to those who supplicate you; to those who need your help, be as ready as possible to [help] with what you have - words, deeds, [monetary] donations (ἀναλώμασιν)..." (364B). In these exhortations, what attracts attention, along with the traditional overtones of the theme, is the emphasis on the social significance of works of mercy, the emphasis on reconciliation and unity of man with man, achieved, firstly, through the Church (see the section on the Eucharist), and secondly, through mutual support and mutual assistance within the framework of the social community. This side of Christian morality is generally important for Palamas (which is why we will continue its analysis in the Third Chapter in the context of those historical events that marked the archbishopric of St. Gregory). Palamas seeks to address the problem of social inequality and the lack of mutual assistance between rich and poor in a variety of aspects, in some cases (and this is understandable and justified) approaching the point of view of the beggars. Indeed, what to do if you yourself are a beggar? Palamas does not pass over in silence this question, which was most acute not only for his time. The homilies contain an interesting and worth noting interpretation of the corresponding beatitude - about the poor in spirit (Matthew 5:3). Who are these beggars? Palamas seeks to show that every believer can be such a beggar: “The poor in spirit are those who, thanks to the modesty of their spirit (or soul) 947, lack of love of glory and voluptuousness, either live in poverty of their own free will, or endure it with dignity, even if it was involuntary” (180C). To appreciate this idea, one should pay attention both to similar ideas in other homily of Palamas and to the vocabulary. Indeed, three negative additions - διὰ τὸ ἀκόμπαστον καὶ ἀφιλόδοξον καὶ ἀφιλήδονον (Ibid.) - find clear parallels in Christian tradition, in particular in the “Life of Athanasius the Great”. Here we are told that demons are afraid of “... meekness, silence (τὸ ἥσυχον), lack of money (τὸ ἀφιλάργυρον), modesty (lit. - absence of vanity, τὸ ἀκενόδοξον )....” 948 . On the other hand, among the temptations of St. Anthony is called precisely φιλοδοξία, and not κενοδοξία 949. The search for “precedents” must continue. But fundamentally, it seems undeniable that Palamas relied (and made it clear to those among his listeners who were more knowledgeable) on the tradition of monastic spirituality, which had its origins no later than the beginning of the 4th century; it is quite possible that he was also hinting at the famous work of the hagiographical genre, which, presumably, was actively read and copied on Athos. These kinds of hints and common passages between Palamas and the tradition of Eastern Christian asceticism serve as an additional guarantor of the reliability of our conclusion that among Palamas’ listeners there were many monastics, who, obviously, were the recipients of this kind of hints (cf. § 8). Further, the theme of poverty can be (and, in our opinion, is) a particular aspect of the more general theme of temptations and arbitrariness of virtues, which, in turn, is closely related to the problems of human freedom. All these questions, one must assume, keenly worried the Thessalonians (and Palamas along with them) - precisely because the economic and political conditions for the feeling of freedom and for developing a consciousness of freedom were becoming less and less favorable, and it was the Church that could provide a person with this opportunity. In this regard, Palamas explains: “After all, a person does not become perfect by the force of involuntary (independent of him, τῶν ἀκουσίων) [circumstances], but one must add to them voluntary [efforts], such as chastity, justice, love for God and for each other - and what follows from it..." (401CD). This theme of circumstances that constrain a person and her own efforts is inextricably linked with the dialectic of necessity and freedom, voluntary and involuntary, as well as with the theme of temptations: “... to act virtuously is in our power ( τὸ μὲν ἐνεργεῖν τὴν ἀρετὴν ἐφ’ἡμῖν ἐστιν) ... and falling into temptation [or not] is not up to us (οὐκ ἐφ’ἡμῖν). And since without these latter it is impossible either to perfect [man], or to discover (φανέρωσις) faith in God..." (404A), then, according to Palamas (as well as all the Fathers), everything sent by the Lord must be endured without complaint, without stopping for a moment in spiritual warfare. Strictly speaking, this is how it always happens, since salvation requires the initiative and good will of a person, “... however, our will never has initiative, and in this sense, virtues always begin involuntarily - with an impulse from God (emphasized by the author. - D. M.) ..." 950. This idea - in agreement with Cassian and the Patristic Tradition - is what Palamas develops before his listeners. The second interpretation of Matthew 5:3 is even closer to the Athonite ascetic tradition, represented primarily by the author of the treatise “The Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention.” “The poor in spirit,” Palamas explains in the Thirty-first Homily, “that is, those who, [being driven] by the inner humility of their spiritual thoughts (τοῦ φρονήματος τῆς ψυχῆς), as well as by bodily abstinence, accept with love (kiss, ἀσπαζόμενοι) poverty and consider non-covetousness more desirable than any wealth... and such is the Kingdom of Heaven” (396A). These words, as one can assume, directly continue the tradition of the “Method”, the author of which teaches that the poor in spirit are those who have not acquired in themselves “any thought (ἔννοιαν) about this age” 951. Thus, it seems not only probable, but also scientifically grounded to speak of Palamas as the heir and continuer of the great tradition of Orthodox asceticism, taking its origins from the Fathers of the Egyptian Desert and - after the Sinai, Middle Eastern, Studian stages - reaching the Holy Mount Athos. This tradition nurtured him as a spiritual worker, a “cultivator of the honey of virtue” (cf. quotes from the hagiographic tradition of Palamas in § 8) and a theologian. He sought to convey the fruits of this tradition, and among them the idea of ​​imitation of believers to Christ, central to Christianity, to his listeners. The highest virtues, according to the teachings of the homilies, are prayer, humility and love. Strictly speaking, all of them can be called virtues par excellence, because true prayer, according to the preacher, is a state when all other virtues are born: “...thanks to unceasing (συνεχοῦς) prayer, love for Him (God. - D.M.) and intimacy [with Him] is born ( συνάφεια) 952, and from this proximity [flows] every virtue; [after all, they] entail humility [arising] from the awareness (τῇ ἐπιγνώσει) [of the fact that the Progenitor of virtues is present in us" (417AV). Therefore, Palamas advises his flock to sing hymns and pray (νῦν μὲν ὑμνοῦντες, νῦν δὲ ἱκετεύοντες ... – 305D). Humility in people testifies to the knowledge of the Truth (Conversations... Part 3. P. 227). Speaking about this (practical-ascetic) side of prayer, one cannot ignore one of the most important places in the Seventeenth Homily, dedicated to the description of the hesychast way of life. This fragment turns out to be a valuable source on the history of smart doing and a kind of “hesychast pedagogy”, so we present its translation in extenso 953: “...and when each... of you enters it (the church - D.M.), let him look for those who are more pious - and such can be recognized by their appearance alone: ​​those who stand before [God]) in silence and prayer... and together with them he appears to God. And if he comes out from there after his dismissal (μετὰ τὴν ἀπόλυσιν), then... let him diligently look for whether there is anyone somewhere who, imitating these apostles 954, spends most of his time locked up, seeking (ποθῶν) the Lord [by doing] in silence, prayer and singing, and the rest of their way of life in accordance with them. Let this one [seeking instruction] approach such and such, and enter with faith into his little house (τὸν οἰκίσκον) 955, as if into some heavenly region, within which resides the power of the [Holy] Spirit, bestowing holiness (τὴν ἁγιαστικὴν τοῦ Πνεύματος δύναμιν ). Let him sit next to the one who lives [in this house] and stay with him as long as he can (καθόσον ἔχει), and talk to him about God and the [sacraments] of God, asking and humbly learning [this], and calling in prayer for support [from above] (τὴν δι’εὐχῆς ἐπικουρίαν ἐπικαλούμενος ). For I know well that to him who does this, Christ will come invisibly and bring peace 956 to the mental [beginning] of the soul, and an increase in faith, and will give steadfastness, and in due time (κατὰ καιρὸν) he will be numbered among the elect in the Kingdom of Heaven” (236BD). And then follows the final doxology. So, the goal of Christian life is understood as the acquisition of the Holy Spirit (and the mention of “power” indicates that this acquisition occurs by energy, and not by hypostasis) and - through Him - deification; like calling on the Lord every day and hour - and achieving being with God. The method of this acquisition is smart work, which should be indulged in under the guidance of an experienced elder. To some extent, this teaching is intended for everyone - both monks and laity; Perhaps Palamas’s last assurance was precisely intended to dispel the latter’s skepticism. In conclusion, eschatological motifs already familiar to us sound; the preacher acts as a kind of trumpet, which awakens his listeners to that activity that brings eternal fruits - which he assures them of. Again, peace (internal, which can be maintained within the individual even in times of storms and trials), faith and perseverance (obviously, precisely in temptations and trials) are understood as something inseparable. As for such components of the lifestyle Palamas offers to his listeners, such as prayer and psalmody, these are integral components of the routine of an Orthodox monk since Egyptian times. 957 Psalmody and prayer are the second and third stages of a monk’s spiritual growth, according to the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention” 958. St. speaks about the same thing in great detail. Philotheus Kokkin in Tradition to the Disciple 959. Thus, in this example we see that the teachings of St. Gregory Palamas fit into the general context of Eastern Christian ascetic theology and set out in breve what dozens of treatises are devoted to... In this sense, the homilies are like a summary of the hesychast tradition (slightly veiled by other topics and problems) and the prayer rules of Palamas himself. As we can see, St. Gregory Palamas writes very sublimely about smart doing, trying to spread the ideas of hesychast revival among the people. And wasn’t the success of his preaching one of the reasons for such a quick (1368) canonization? We, for our part, would be inclined to support this assumption. So, smart doing can be considered the highest level in the arsenal of means available to a person, with the help of which he acquires his salvation. In the light of what we have said, the common opinion, shared by most scholars (including Meyendorff 960), that almost no traces of the hesychast theology of mental work have been preserved in the homilies, should be abandoned - or, in any case, noticeably corrected in favor of recognizing a much greater multi-layered and complex internal structure of the homilies than has been assumed. And yet, along with smart work, there remains one royal pinnacle of virtues (56C; etc.), a sign of our discipleship with Christ and the legacy that He left us when ascending into heaven (of course, parallels arise with the theme of the inheritance of the Kingdom of God by the righteous) - love. It is the one who loves God and neighbor and continually prays in his heart who will be saved. Being cleansed of passions, he (as the teacher of silence teaches us) will be able to see God in this life. We will devote the last two paragraphs of this chapter – 7 and 8 – to this topic. Now, in order for the conversation about the topic of virtues to acquire a more solid basis, let us summarize the data available to us (on the basis of Migne’s “Patrology”) about which virtues St. Gregory Palamas, to the table. Due to the numerous references to basic virtues, it selectively indicates only the main places in which the preacher reveals the meaning of a particular virtue. Therefore, the table does not have the nature of a frequency dictionary. However, we hope that, subject to further corrections and clarifications, it will be useful to the dear reader in this form. Table 4. Types of virtues identified in the human soul by St. Gregory Palama Thus, as we could see, the most important St. Gregory Palamas considers the following virtues: love (No. 3), prayers to God (No. 25), righteousness (or justice - No. 31), abstinence (No. 34), confession (No. 41), works (No. 52), repentance (No. 88), fasting (No. 94), faith (No. 101), prayer (No. 112), humility (No. 129). This forces us to once again repeat the conclusion already made throughout this and the previous paragraphs: in his sermon, St. Gregory Palamas addresses the message of salvation - the main soteriological message of Christianity - to all, without exception, layers of the urban and rural population of late Byzantium. The virtues he identifies are universal and generally significant both for monastics (prayers, abstinence) and for laity (confession, faith and deeds confirming this faith, fasting, repentance - and, of course, love). It is the universality of the ascetic and, more broadly, anthropological program outlined and revealed in them that makes the homilies of St. Gregory Palamas is a unique source on the history of Byzantine anthropology and patristic thought in general. § 7. Soteriology sub specie eschatologiae: the doctrine of mental prayer and unity with God through enlightenment Eschatology runs like a red thread through the theology of St. Gregory Palamas. Naturally, soteriology as a “small” (or “individual”) eschatology turns out to be inextricably linked with this topic. After all, one of the goals of the Incarnation, according to the Sixteenth Homily, was the creation of a new man (ἵνα καινὸν ποιήσῃ τὸν ἄνθρωπον [sc. ὁ Χριστὸς] - 193B). Soteriological ideas and motives, closely intertwined with the justification and understanding of the hesychast experience of mental work, continuous prayer and enlightenment of soul and body (which is the initial stage of deification) occupy a central place in the system of views of St. Gregory Palamas on man, his purpose and his path in the universe - from the snares of sin to the infinite and good God. Palamas's soteriology is surprisingly complete. It is based on several main ideas arising from the Christian experience of life in St. Trinity - Father, Son and Holy Spirit; To reconstruct this eschatology in the entire sequence of its mental links and courses of argument, we will turn, along with the collection of homilies, to some other creations of the teacher of silence, and first of all to the “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters” - a treatise unique in depth and versatility of content, the information wealth of which is still being revealed and used far from the extent that it deserves. The significance of eschatology - the most important section in the worldview of hesychast teachers, including Palamas - for Christian theology as a whole was revealed only in the middle of the 20th century. a number of scientists, the first of whom should be named prot. Georgy Florovsky. Starting from a similar statement by H. Urs von Balthasar, the Russian theologian wrote: “Indeed, in this knot all directions of theological thought intersect and are closely intertwined. Eschatology cannot be isolated into a special paragraph, a separate article of doctrine - it can only be understood in the holistic perspective of Christianity. Modern theological thought is characterized precisely by the restoration of the eschatological dimension in Christianity (our italics - D.M.)" 986. But if today this is perceived by some as news, then for St. Gregory Palamas and the spiritual environment that nurtured him, this was a natural and organic way of seeing the world and feeling the world. The fathers did not “think” about eschatology - they lived it, it was their hope and their hope... And we would like to try to reveal this holistic and inextricable connection of eschatology with other sections of Christian doctrine, about which Florovsky wrote so insightfully and deeply, in this paragraph using the example of an analysis of the ideas of St. Gregory Palamas. Actually, eschatology (in its practical, “realized” state) is a meeting of a person with God, or rather, the highest (of those achievable in the present century) point of this meeting, when a person, being transformed and changed by grace, begins to see God not as a “mirror in fortune-telling,” but in the process of direct illumination by the light of God (albeit, of course, commensurate with the strength of the mind perceiving the illumination). This vision comes if we constantly look at the Lord with intelligent eyes, remaining in sobriety (εἰνήφομεν) (304B). Then we find ourselves in a position “...not only to see [God], but also to learn from it [the vision]; great benefits for yourself; for this vision itself (ἡ θέα) is the abolition of all sin, the destruction of all wickedness, the removal from all evil. This vision is the creation of all virtue (ποιητικὴ), the generation of purity and dispassion, the presentation of eternal life and the infinite Kingdom (παρεκτική)” (Ibid.). During this vision, we look with the intelligent eye (νοερῶς) at the present - here and now - Christ (εἰς παρόντα τὸν Χριστὸν)” (Ibid. BC). This vision of God means entering into living and direct contact with Him, as a result of which the soul and body of a person are improved. According to the deep and fair remark of His Eminence. Amfilohija (Radovich): “Only God who is “participated in one way or another” is worthy of human worship, and only that person who is able to come into contact with God, into communion with Him and unity with Him, is truly a person” 987. This meeting with God is the goal of the ascetic’s efforts. Prepared by participation in the Eucharist, doing good deeds and acquiring virtues, it is the crown of a Christian’s earthly life and, at the same time, the beginning of eternal life, bringing the one who has achieved this meeting equal angelic dignity. From this follows the designation of monastic life as angelic (βίος ἀγγελικός), and many cliches of hagiographic literature, and the depiction of halos on the icons of saints, which Florensky astutely wrote about, and much more. Without understanding this spiritual and mystical core of Christian life, its place and role in it, it is difficult to understand the two thousand year history and culture of Christianity. For God is light and dwells in unapproachable light (John 1:5, 9, 8:12; 1 John 2:8, 5:7; James 1:17; 2 Cor. 4:6; 1 Tim. 6:16; Heb. 1:3; etc.); and practically any (except for the Incarnation) phenomenon (disclosure, detection) of Him in the world is also light 988; In patristic writing we can find many examples of descriptions of the Epiphany precisely as a phenomenon of light - from strict and laconic to sublime and poetic in style (St. Gregory the Theologian, St. Basil of Seleucia, (pseudo-) Macarius of Egypt, St. Simeon the New Theologian, etc.). But it was St. Gregory Palamas, relying on the works of these Fathers, created a theology of light 989 that is holistic and complete in its conclusions and intuitions, the central theme of which is the Transfiguration of Tabor. St. Nicodemus the Holy Mountainer wrote about Palamas: “Being the light, contemplating the light and being in the light... he reflects on the light, and speaks, and writes all his God-created lights (πάντα τὰ θεουργικὰ ἑαυτοῦ φῶτα).” 990. According to tradition, the dying words of St. Gregory were: “to the mountain... to the mountain... to the light” 991. How did Palamas understand the light that he comprehended throughout his life and which occupies a central place in his theology? As always, the starting point for Palamas' eschatology is a discussion of the conditions under which it is possible to see the light of God. The corresponding teaching of the saint cannot be understood in isolation from the main line of development of Eastern Christian patristics, starting from the era of the Ecumenical Councils. To the teaching of St. Gregory on the deification of man was decisively influenced by the Christology of the Fourth Ecumenical Council and St. Maximus the Confessor 992. Of the earlier Fathers, St. Palamas is very close. Gregory of Nyssa 993, while St. Callistus Angelicud relies on St. Basil the Great 994. Here we have to briefly consider the second (and for anthropological teaching, hardly less important) channel of this influence: the hesychast teaching about prayer and human enlightenment, as it was reflected in the homilies of St. Gregory Palamas 995. We must not forget that from the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. a hesychast revival began, which gave impetus to the Orthodox Renaissance 996, in which many earlier motifs were naturally updated. Much has been done in the area of ​​interest to us. Modern research (already G. Papamikhail and I. Sokolov, as well as V. Ioannidis, I. Oser, V. Krivoshein, D. Staniloae, A. von Ivanka, I. F. Meyendorff, I. Romanidis, G. Podskalsky, D. Stirnon, A. Rigo, A.-E. Tahiaos, D. J. Davide, G. I. Mantzaridis, R. E. Sinkevich, A. Evtich, G. M. Prokhorov, A. I. Sidorov, V. M. Lurie, I. Vlahos, V. Grolimundi, etc.) increasingly reveal the fundamental significance of hesychasm for Orthodoxy and its ever deeper origins (from the 3rd–4th centuries) 997. The general tradition of hesychasm has been identified, in line with which the works of St. Gregory Palamas 998. The connection with the mysticism of light of (pseudo-) Macarius of Egypt is clarified for that part of the late hesychast tradition, which represents the inner circle of Palamas 999. A connection has been established with the hesychasm of Sts. Gregory the Theologian and Maximus the Confessor 1000, so one can agree with the scientist’s conclusion that hesychasm is the highest expression of Orthodox spirituality 1001. Various spiritual-ascetic movements within the framework of hesychasm are also distinguished: for example, recently the differences between “Sinaitic” (a branch of St. Gregory Sinaite) and “Palamite” hesychasm have been shown 1002. As for Palamas’ teaching itself, we will try to briefly point out only a few achievements that seem to us the most important. First of all, the connection between the mystical theology of Palamas and his theology of the Sacraments 1003 was proven and convincingly demonstrated; the formula of the Jesus Prayer, mentioned by St. Gregory 1004; the teaching of St. Gregory about ecstasy and mental unity with God 1005 and that the whole person participates in the perception of the Divine and - if he has acquired righteousness through his labors - is deified after the Last Judgment 1006. We only have to add some clarifying remarks about the proximity of a number of moments of the ascetic-anthropological teaching of Palamas, imprinted in the homilies that preceded the hesychast and homiletic traditions (which are practically the same thing) 1007. Man is completely deified by grace; but if the soul (by the power of the Divine Light) is still in this life, then the body is in the next century 1008. “God,” Palamas testifies, “[is] the Timeless Light, true and eternal, in which the spirits (τὰ πνεύματα) of the righteous now abide; then the saints will [abide in it] and with [their] bodies (καὶ μετὰ σώματος)” (348D). Being deified in the body and with the body, the saints will become heirs of the Light of God and the everlasting day; “At the end of this age, the righteous with their bodies will become heirs of this Light, being also sons of the truly [existing] day. And indeed, this day, being non-evening (ἀνέσπερός τε) and continuous, does not and did not have a dawn, because [it] does not have a beginning” (297C). The eschatological finale is seen and preached by Palamas as the desired outcome for every Christian (who, in order to be worthy of it, must become righteous): “May we also be worthy,” he calls in the doxology of one of his sermons, “... to immediately be contemplatives and partakers (θεωροὺς καὶ μετόχους) of this glory by the grace and love of Jesus Christ, wondrous in His witnesses” (536A). To paraphrase the famous words of a famous author, we can say that in life there is not only always a place for feat, but life itself (at least the life of a Christian, as Palamas understood it - be it a monk or a layman) can and should become a feat. A feat that crowns the contemplation of the uncreated Light of God, which is one of the energies of God... How to achieve this? Answer of St. Gregory Palamas: the hesychast practice of approaching God through unceasing prayer, transformation of the mind and good deeds. For Palamas, as for the Greek patristic tradition as a whole - as it got rid of the traces of Plato's and Origen's neglect of the earthly, material and bodily aspect of human existence 1009 - the problem of deification increasingly became the problem of the salvation of the whole person, “an existential problem, to use the term of our current philosophy” 1010. And only the free existential aspiration of a person, and not the adoption of any next theory or system of dogmas, can resolve it. Palamas’s main advice to believers, which he tirelessly repeats, addressing both monks and laity, is to constantly collect your mind and raise it to God, so that life, guided by the mind, will flow according to God. The corresponding statements of the saint, collected together and analyzed as a single whole, reveal as their foundation a single and integral system of views on man and the path of his salvation, “... let us also bear the image of the heavenly,” Palamas calls, “and, having a heart [turned] to grief, to Him (God. - D. M.), we will see this great spectacle (τὸ ... θέαμα) - ours nature, co-eternal (eternally co-existent, συνδιαιωνίζουσαν) with the immaterial fire of the Divine” (285A). For this, the saint continues, “let us stand on holy land (ἐν γῇ ἁγίᾳ), having built (ἀποδείξαντες) it - each [of us] - in himself ( καθ’ ἑαυτὸν) with virtue and unceasing aspiration (νεύσεως) towards God... [and then] we will be eternally enlightened [by Him] (συνδιαιωνίσωμεν φωτιζόμενοι), [rising] to the glory of the Most High Light, [that is] the Trisolar and Unique Lordship (τῆς (Ibid. AB). And for this, in turn, one must remain, according to the command of the Lord, “always awakened and awake (διεγηγερμένους ... καὶ ἐγρηγορότας)” (284C), without committing any evil. Thanks to the inaction of evil, the day of salvation comes (ἡμέρα σωτήριος – Ibid. D). This designation of the eschatological finale of history 1011, already close to early Christian literature 1012, is found in the 35th homily in a remarkable context, confirming what was said and quoted by us earlier: “Behold, now is the favorable time (καιρὸς εὐπρόσδεκτος), behold now day of salvation (ἡμέρα σωτήριας), brethren, divine day, new (καινὴ) [cf.: Καινὴ Διαθήκη. – D.M.] and eternal... for this is the day of the Sun of righteousness (Mal.3:20)....” (437A). In other treatises of Palamas we also find the expression “day of the Lord” (ἡμέρα Κυρίου), which, as we have just seen, goes back to early Christian sources of the period of “actual eschatology,” i.e., the turn of the 1st–2nd centuries. 1013. So, we are talking here about the eschatological finale of personal history, which correlates in its main features (the glorification of the righteous and the condemnation of the sinful, about which Palamas either does not speak at all or speaks extremely sparingly 1014), presumably coincides with the eschatological finale of history in general. The importance of the topic forces us to take a closer look at its interpretation by the saint. And first of all, it should be noted that the stage (let’s call it that) of actual eschatology (or, as usual, deification) can be approached by the actual effort of a person aimed at gaining salvation: prayers, petitions (ταῖς δεήσεσι) and prayers to God; in addition (cf. also the previous paragraph), one must “... have the mental eye (τὸ ὄμμα τῆς διανοίας) directed (ἀνατεταμένον) to the Heavenly Lord, like angels (angel-like, ἀγγελομιμήτως); praise and glorify Him with an impeccable life (ἀνεπίληπτῳ πολιτείᾳ) and, [doing] so, expect His mysterious coming (τὴν μυστικὴν ... ἐπιδημίαν )....” (284AB). From these words it is clearly clear that the whole person and all his efforts must be subordinated to the ultimate goal - salvation - and turned to God. The entire theology of Palamas answers in the affirmative the basic question of soteriology: yes, a person can have residence in heaven if he overcomes his limitations and his depravity by “intelligent striving for God (διὰ τῆς κατὰ νοῦν πρὸς τὸν Θεὸν ἀνατάσεως)" (305B), "directing the mental eye to Christ" (285Α; cf.: 272CD). He who does this is likened to the Apostles after the Ascension, who lived “having a mind with a howl in heaven” (284A). And having their minds in heaven, the disciples (we are talking about a description of Pentecost, but in principle this image can be extended to the life of the first Christians as a whole, as Palamas understood it) remained - each of them, and everyone as a whole - gathered not only in the upper part of the church, “but also in the upper [part] of themselves, [that is] in their own mind (ἐν τῷ καθ’ἑαυτῶν ὑπερῷῳ, τῷ οικείῳ νῷ ...” (309C). Further, to this main instruction is added a list of their other affairs: work, concentration and attention to oneself (προσέχοντες), prayer and chants (τοῖς ὕμνοις), addressed to God (Ibid.). The above expressions should not be perceived as some kind of sublime rhetoric - rhetoric is inappropriate here, if only because the rhetorical attitude initially presupposes the ability to look at things from the outside, to mentally detach from them (as, by the way, does the philosophical one; S. S. Averintsev has recently written a lot about their kinship, explained by their origin from a common root, 1015), while in Palamas we are talking about closeness with God, exceeding the categories of language - and the very word is human. But what has been said leaves no doubt that, despite the relative diversity of the initial stages of the path to unity with God, they all have their completion and crowning at the highest stage, without which Orthodox asceticism is unthinkable as an independent and holistic phenomenon: mental work and unceasing prayer. Deprived of this stage, the ascetic ceases to be Orthodox. Without asceticism, salvation can hardly be achieved by a person, be it a monk or a layman. But Palamas's pastoral wisdom manifests itself in the fact that he points out different paths to achieving concentration for different socio-ideological groups of his flock. Thus, for laymen and monks who lead a cenonic, as well as a mixed solitary-communal lifestyle (which involves going out to the brethren, participating in the liturgy and receiving the Holy Sacraments on Saturdays and Sundays), the liturgy brings enormous benefits in the cause of salvation. According to Palamas, the one who comes to the church for the liturgy and remains at it until the end, “gathering his mind and raising it to God (συνάγων καὶ ἀνατείνων ... τὴν αὐτοῦ διάνοιαν), not only will he comprehend with its help the words of the Divinely inspired Scripture - as if some messengers proclaiming the Divinity and humanity for our sake of the Word of God made man, but he will also clearly see the Lord Himself with the eyes of the mind (τῆς διανοίας) - and, I will even say, with the physical” (272C). To do this, we must look “with faith” (Ibid.): only under this condition is the grace of the Holy Spirit given, with the assistance of which we can see spiritual objects (428D). Palamas explains a little further: if a person stands at the liturgy, “...gathering his mind and extending it to God ( ἀνατείνοντα )" (273Β), then "... as a result of this doing (τῆς μελέτης) a certain warmth arises in the heart, like flies, driving away (ἀποσοβοῦσα) evil thoughts and placing in spiritual peace and consolation for the soul, and [at the same time] sanctifying the body...” (273B). This describes the hesychast practice of (a) self-gathering of the mind and (b) bringing it down into the heart (which is why warmth is generated), which has fundamentally significant parallels in the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention” by St. Nikephoros the Hesychast and Theoliptus of Philadelphia, while the verb ἀποσοβέω is used in a similar meaning after Palamas - St. Callistus Angelicud (see link below). Indeed, the “Method” makes it clear to the seeker that the internal matter of the mind (related, if not identical, to that which Palamas designates with the verb συνάγω and the noun μελέτη) is “finding (εὑρεῖν) the location of the heart, where all mental forces usually reside” 1016; this is the bringing of the mind into the heart. When this doing becomes constant, the mind acquires, along with what it seeks (and as a consequence of this acquisition), “unceasing joy (ἄληκτον εὐφροσύνην)” 1017. St. says the same thing. Nikifor: “...the mind, when united with the soul 1018, is filled with indescribable pleasure and joy (ἄρρητον ἡδονὴν καὶ εὐφροσύνην)” 1019. The Kingdom of God, according to the Father, is sought (ἐπιζητῶν) through pure prayer: if the mind is consistently occupied with it, then “... you will enter,” he addresses the monk, “into the monastery (lit. - location) of the heart (εἰς τὸν καρδιακὸν τόπον )" 1020 . This doing must be continuous (μελέτην ἄπαυστον) 1021. At St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia, similar motifs are found literally from the first lines of the First Ascetic Word, which says: “You must sing praises to God [remember what Palamas said about the Apostles! - D. M.] from the depths of the heart..." 1022 Further we read in this word a statement of spiritual experience, undoubtedly, shortly before experienced by the author: "... Christ appears to the struggling (we are talking about spiritual warfare - D. M.) soul and imparts to the heart unspeakable joy (χαρὰν ἀνεκλάλητον )"; a little further on we talk about “spiritual joy” 1023. The quotations can be multiplied: we encounter references to both the “praying mind” and the “care [of the mind] for divine [objects] (τῶν θείων τὴν μελέτην)” 1024. As we see, in Theoliptus (as in Palamas and Callistus Angelicuda), the theme of spiritual warfare plays a significant role. He directly advises the monk: “...wage the battle with your inner thoughts until you find the place of pure prayer (τὸν τόπον τῆς καθαρᾶς προσευχῆς) and the abode in which Christ dwells, Who enlightens ( φωτίζων) you, bestows the sweetness of knowing and exploring Yourself..." 1025. This topic will prevail among Rev. Callista. The recently published 16th Word of his “On spiritual warfare and the sacred silence consonant with it” opens precisely with the theme of distinguishing (διακρίνειν) demonic attacks and repelling them (ἀποσοβεῖν) 1026. Taking the baton from Palamas, Theoliptus and the tradition of contemplative hesychasm renewed by their efforts, Angelicud largely sums up this tradition; in a number of points of teaching he is even more precise than Palamas. So, if St. Gregory, the terms διάνοια and νοῦς are sometimes used as almost equal to each other (for example, the expression “eyes of the mind” can be replaced by the practically synonymous “eyes of reason”; cf. cited examples), then St. Callistus calls the mind and reason 1027 two eyes of faith, receiving “spiritual enlightenment (smart, νοερὸς φωτισμός)” 1028 from the divine tablets, and the place where this is accomplished is “sacred and undistracted (ἀμετέωρος) silence" 1029; these topics are further developed in great detail. It seems obvious and proven that the same monastic practice of mental doing is described by Palamas, and not only in the above-mentioned passage of the homilies. Proof of how much importance Palamas attached to the brief description of mental warfare we quoted is the fact that he himself quotes this passage from the 11th homily in another homily, the 20th: Further, in both cases, a quote is given from one of the Fathers: “Make every effort to ensure that your inner work is done according to God - and you will overcome external passions” (129A; 273B). We find similar advice, for example, in St. Hesychius of Sinai, who, in particular, says: “... direct all your mind to [your] entrails” 1031. Thus, there is no doubt that St. Gregory Palamas belongs to the great tradition of Sinai-Athos hesychasm. Moreover, he finds himself in the middle and second third of the 14th century. the central link of this tradition: despite all the vicissitudes of his life and ministry, he managed to build a bridge between representatives of hesychasm, on the one hand, more practical, associated with a certain physiological technique of holding the breath (the author of the “Method”, St. Nikephoros, later - St. Callistus and Ignatius Xanthopoulos) and, on the other hand, contemplative hesychasm, which places emphasis not so much on the external technique of achieving higher spiritual states, available to man in this century, as many as in these states themselves. From this side, his closest teacher is St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia, and his follower was St. Callistus Angelicud. The significance of Palamas's homilies for reconstructing the fullness of his theological views (including anthropology) can no longer be disputed. Homilies also give advice for monks living in complete solitude. It is remarkable that the direct justification for prayer practice here is the Transfiguration of the Lord (as, incidentally, it was - in a general soteriological context - even with St. Gregory of Nyssa 1032). In order to unite with God (συνεῖναι Θεῷ), says St. Gregory, it is required to bring to Him “...a mind freed from everything lower (νοῦν πάντων ἀπηλλαγμένων τῶν κάτω). This is highly facilitated by solitude (μόνωσις), desert dwelling (ἐρημία) and [consistent with] silence (ἡ...ἡσυχία)” (404C). In the next phrase, Palamas names among the means that elevate the ascetic grief, desert living, peace, prayer and solitude; an example of all this was given by the Lord on Mount Tabor: “And since the time has come (καιρὸς) to teach [them] (the Apostles, and through them all the believers. - D. M.), that desert living, peace, prayer and solitude are good (καλὸν ἐρημία καὶ ἠρεμία καὶ προσευχὴ καὶ μόνωσις) 1033, therefore it was necessary for [the Lord] to ascend the mountain to pray in solitude (κατ’ ἰδίαν προσεύξασθαι)” (404C). Thus, the highest example of prayer was given by the Lord Himself to those chosen from among the disciples on the mountain; It is noteworthy that of the three gospel accounts of the Transfiguration (Matthew 17:1–8; Mark 9:2–8; Luke 9:28–36), only Luke reports the purpose of Christ’s ascent to the mountain: ἀνέβη εἰς τὸ ὄρος προσεύξασθαι ... (Luke 9:28). In his exhortations, Palamas seems to rely precisely on Luke's version; Wed from the teacher of silence: ... ἀναβῆναι ἔδει τὸ ὄρος, ὥστε κατ’ ἰδίαν προσεύξασθαι · (Ibid.). Thus, Palamas places the spiritual and ascetic experience of the hesychast monks in the coordinate system of evangelical patristic theology 1034, the foundations of which were laid by our Lord Jesus Christ Himself. Saints and ordinary Christians who follow in their footsteps act as co-workers with the Lord; He who remains faithful to the end will become a joint heir with the Lord. To do this, you need to devote your whole life to serving Him. Palamas never tires of emphasizing the leading role of the human mind in the process of man achieving salvation and responding to the Divine call. He admits that in the mind, along with bad thoughts, there is also a certain good thought that should be turned to God: “when this thought turns around the Divine θεῖα) 1035, driving away carnal lusts and thereby bringing peace into the soul, so that carnal thoughts subside in it (τῶν δὲ σαρκικῶν λογισμῶν) (the contrast is absolutely clear! - D. M .), the soul is taken [under its wings] (παραλαβοῦσα) by the grace of the Holy Spirit. Thanks to her, it becomes possible to taste of those future and inexpressible blessings” (273C). “And this eating,” continues Palamas, “is a pledge (ἀῤῥαβών) of these [goods], and the heart that accepts such pledges becomes spiritual (πνευματική) and acquires reliable knowledge (πληροφορίαν) about its own salvation...” (Ibid.). All these expressions show that St. Gregory belongs to the spiritual tradition of (Pseudo-) Macarius of Egypt and Diadochos of Photiki of Egypt, developed in new conditions by the author of the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention” and St. Nicephorus the Hesychast, who described the bringing of the mind into the heart; in the next generation of hesychasts after Palamas, this line was continued by St. Callistus Angelicud 1036. According to St. For Callistus, as for the author of the Method 1037, the heart represents the spiritual center of the personality, where all the forces of the soul are collected. The above passage from Palamas shows that he, too, is talking about the mind, brought together in the heart - and, therefore, has passed through all stages of mental activity and “dissolved” with prayer until the latter is continuous, undistracted and has a special spiritual effectiveness. This is the path of salvation: “...for in this way [the one who walks] will become a cohabitant (συμπολίτης) of the saints of God and a fellow participant (participant, κοινωνὸς) of those eternal and ineffable blessings that are commanded to them” (273CD). A summary of Palamas's teaching on man's path to salvation and deification, which we have just traced through the homily, can be found already in the Triads. Let us quote one of the most meaningful passages (2.3.57): “He who has dissolved all attachment of his soul to the lower, freed himself from everything [low], keeping the commandments and [preserving the dispassion generated by] this [observance]; [who] has surpassed all activity of knowledge [of anything], aided by diligent (ἐκτενοῦς) prayer, pure (εἰλικρινοῦς) and immaterial, and, having [reached] such a [state], was illuminated ( περιλαμφθεὶς) impregnable glow (τῷ ... φέγγει), thanks to the highest degree (καθ’ ὑπεροχὴν) incomprehensible (ἀγνωστου) unity, and [who] sees the Light, enjoying the contemplation of this Light (ἐν τῇ τοῦ φωτἐς ἐκείνου θέᾳ τε καὶ ἀπολαύσει) - [he] comprehends ( γινώσκει) true lordship (τὸ ὑπερφαὲς) and unthinkability (ἀπερινόητον) of God 1038. The incomprehensible God condescends to the world and man and reveals himself to them in His energies, one of which is the Light that the Apostles saw (externally) on Mount Tabor and which every believer who lives the life of the Orthodox Church and is in the feat of prayerful ascetic self-concentration is now able to see internally, which is nothing more than an ascent to God (“up the mountain,” that is, above baseness nature 1039). And God condescends in response to human effort and human call: he condescends in reality, appearing as Light, for the light of God is the energy of God 1040 (more precisely, one of the energies; but, as is known, all of God is present in every energy 1041). The theme of light plays a central role in the anthropology of St. Gregory; The time has come to take a closer look at the interpretation of St. Gregory of the Light (to the extent necessary to fulfill the tasks of our work, namely, to clarify the saint’s teaching about deification and the final fate of man). For Palamas’ understanding of the theme of light in the general context of his theology, “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters...” is very important, a treatise written shortly before the homilies (probably in 1347–1348) and providing the researcher with valuable material. Here St. Gregory says that the Light of the Lord’s Transfiguration is “the creative (δημιουργική) energy of God” 1042, the Kingdom of God 1043, the natural ray and glory of the Divine, the uncreated ray of the uncreated Essence 1044, thanks to the illumination of which knowledge of beings is achieved 1045. This eternal light existed before the world and was revealed at Tabor 1046. The fact that the energy of God and the Light of the Transfiguration of the Lord (as one of the energies) are uncreated is revealed, respectively, in the 2nd and 7th decrees of the Blachernae Council of 1351 1047: “... for we do not know anything created in God,” explains the Palamite priest John Hionopoulos, whose discussion on the themes of the Light of Tabor on pp. 139–139 vol. manuscripts Marc. gr. 162 (2nd half of the 14th century) published by A. Rigo 1048. We find confirmation and development of this teaching in the homilies, “... this great spectacle of the Light of the Lord’s Transfiguration,” writes Palamas, “is the sacrament of the eighth [day], that is, the future century... On the eighth [day], the power of the best action 1049 is the Kingdom of God” (PG. 151, 428BC). “The eighth century is the future century,” says St. John of Damascus 1050. How traditional is the eschatological interpretation of the Transfiguration? Is it possible to unconditionally accept the words of Fr. John Meyendorff: “The eschatological interpretation of the miracle of the Transfiguration is traditional for the patristic writings, and from a purely biblical point of view it is absolutely correct” 1051? To be convinced of this, a few quotes are enough. According to St. Ephraim the Syrian (or, according to Fr. van Esbrouck, Isaac of Antioch), Christ in the Transfiguration “... showed them (the apostles - D.M.) how He would come on the last day (ἐν τῇ ἡμερᾳ τῇ ἐσχάτῃ) in the Glory of His Divinity and in the body of humanity His... He brought Him up to the mountain and showed them His Kingdom before His Passion, His power before His death, His glory before His reproach, and His honor before His dishonor” 1052. There is no talk here yet about the mysticism of light. The author focuses on the economic significance of the Transfiguration in connection with the confession of faith by the apostle. Peter in Caesarea Philippi (Matthew 16:16–21); The thought of St. moves in the same direction. Cyril of Alexandria 1053. St. Proclus of Constantinople already connects the event that interests us with the transformation of our nature on the day of the Last Judgment: “For the Lord [our Jesus] Christ was transformed... in order to show us the coming transformation of this nature and [His] future Second Coming with the angels on the clouds in the light” 1054. There is also no mysticism of light here yet. But already at St. Basil of Seleucia (mid-5th century) we read: “Surrounded by this Light, the Lord [our Jesus] Christ will approach from heaven, like a triumphant (τροπαιοῦχος), making His Second Coming to people” 1055. “After all, the vision of the brilliance of visible things, surrounding those looking on with radiance, designated (ὑπεσήμανεν) the coming Judge of the universe” 1056. So, the Transfiguration foreshadowed the day of Judgment. But on that day Christ will appear in the fullness of His light; now He “...for our sake tempered these rays” 1057. This already brings us to the teaching of the hesychasts about the proportionality of the donation of light to the power of the perceiver; no wonder that the homily of St. Basil, in no small part due to its magnificent rhetorical decoration, was preserved on Athos in late medieval copies and translated into Middle Bulgarian 1058. Finally, in the sermon of St. Patriarch Anastasius I (VI century), the eschatological meaning of the Transfiguration is explained using a complex categorical apparatus: “...[Christ] transformed His Own Body into incorruption; and showed him transformed (μεταστοιχειωθέν) after the Resurrection into the spiritual and incorruptible, which we also have [as] a guarantee of transformation and transformation (μεταστοιχειώσεως καὶ μετασχηματισμοῦ) of our own bodies" 1059. Late Byzantine homiletics does not introduce anything new into the explanation of the eschatological component of the Transfiguration; except that St. Gregory of Sinai links it both with the appearance of the coming glory of Christ and with the beauty of His Incarnation 1060. Therefore, a general summary of the tradition from which St. Gregory Palamas, one can consider the words of St. Theodora Studite: “The Feast of the Transfiguration depicts the state of the future century” 1061. So, agreeing with the conclusion of Fr. Meyendorff, one can still notice that in Byzantine homiletics there were two exegetical traditions on the Transfiguration: one correlated the revelation of the Light of Tabor with the glory of the Second Coming; the other (deepening and complementing the first) focused on this moment as the day of the Last Judgment. Palamas, adhering to the first tradition 1062, develops and complements it, showing here also considerable interest in anthropology 1063. Palamas explains the eternity of the Tabor Light by analogy with visible light; just as the uncreated Light is premium, so, says the Saint, “... there was [a time] when the sunlight was not, as in a vessel, in this disk; for that (light. - D. M.) is primordial (πρωτόγονόν ἐστι), and this disk only on the fourth day produced the One who produces everything...” (440A). This idea, consistent with modern scientific cosmogony, goes back to the most ancient Christian literary monuments - in particular, to the apocryphal “Book of Enoch the Righteous” (I–II centuries). In the final chapter of the Slavic version of this monument, the Lord says to Enoch: “Before things became visible, the depth of light was opened, and I, in the midst of the light, being invisible, like the sun, walked from east to west and from west to east” 1064. So, the idea of ​​theophany as photophany (light manifestation) can be traced in Christianity from its very origins; Moreover, this idea is older than Christianity. Already X. Riesenfeld in his classic work showed that in the perception of the ancient Jews the Messiah is light or carries light; that light is a characteristic of the future world and it is associated with the faces of the righteous emitting it in the future life 1065. We have already seen that this view is also shared by the Greek patristic tradition. And according to St. Gregory Palamas, Adam before the Fall was “...clothed in the robe of glory” 1066, which now the Word of God “... again more clearly showed at Tabor to those chosen from the disciples” 1067. This radiance, which in the next century the righteous will be rewarded with, “... having completely become the Divine Light, as a product (γεννήματα) of the Divine Light” (432C) 1068, will become “robes of glory, which those who approach (ἐγγίζοντες) will wear in the next century” (440B), that is, the common Kingdom, the glory and light of God and the saints. For “...the common and united glory, the Kingdom and this radiance are with God and His saints” (448A) - a radiance, one of the manifestations of which is the Light of Tabor, shining in the Body of Christ 1069. So, about Peter and Paul, Palamas says that they acquired the glory and lordship (λαμπρότης) of God (356D). We thus approach the holy of holies of Palamas’ anthropology – the doctrine of deification... Along the way, we can solve a textual problem: how did Palamas prepare his sermons and did he write down their text? It seems that from a comparison of the 66th chapter of the “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters...”, created, according to R. Sinkevich, shortly after 1347 1070, and the quoted fragment from the 16th homily (relating, according to the convincing dating of R. Flogaus, to 1347–1350 1071) it will become clear that Palamas carefully prepared his sermons and wrote down at least their most important passages: The texts are almost completely identical down to the line. Which one was the source for the other? Flogaus advocates the priority of the 16th homily in relation to the 66th chapter of 1072, but so far this assumption is not possible either to prove or to refute it in any convincing way. Be that as it may, we noted (following R. E. Sinkevich and R. Flogaus) the teacher of silence’s self-citation of his own texts devoted to the “Taborian” theme, proves that the theme of the Transfiguration - and mainly in the eschatological context - constantly worried St. Gregory, remaining the inner core of his theology throughout his life. Thanks to the vision of light, there is a real, and not fictitious and not “symbolic”, as Barlaam and the anti-Palamites would like, meeting of the Creator with His creation. If the energies of God are created, as Varlaam asserted, “...then,” according to Meyendorff, “divine Providence, and the contemplative power, and the radiance of God, which appeared on Tabor to Moses, Elijah and those who entered the mountain with Christ, who showed His own Divinity and Kingdom, are also creatures, if nature alone is beginningless and infinite, if it is one there is the uncreated Light and the uncreated glory of God, and if the unity of the uncreated Divinity must be understood in the sense that only the divine essence remains uncreated” 1073. In other words, the entire Economy of our salvation collapses; Palamas, sparing no effort, emphasizes that thanks to illumination from God - the light of God, the participation of which grants the fullness of knowledge of the sacraments of God accessible to creatures - our perfection and deification are achieved. “... achieving the perfection of [our] existence in the likeness of God,” says St. Gregory, - occurs thanks to divine illumination from God (διὰ τῆς ἐκ Θεοῦ θείας ελλάμψεως)" 1074. And the perfection of the likeness of God in man, that is, human likeness to God, is deification. How does Palamas see this eschatological ideal, most fully characterized in two homilies for the Transfiguration (Nos. 34 and 35), and how was this vision influenced by the previous tradition of homiletics for this holiday, in its development (as we will try to show) closely intertwined with hesychast asceticism? Salvation presupposes the deification of all human nature. According to St. Maximus the Confessor, on whom the hesychasts and Palamas relied, man is called to “become by communion everything that God is by [His] nature” 1075, that is, to become uncreated by grace. The same idea is repeatedly revealed by St. Gregory Palamas in a dual ascetic-soteriological and eschatological context, and for the “Triads”, which are the justification and sui generis manifesto of the spiritual experience of the Athonite hesychasts of the late XIII - mid-XIV centuries, it is more typical to reveal the first, and for the homilies - the second aspect of the problem (we tried to emphasize the inseparability of these aspects throughout our study). Thus, in “Triads” (2.3.68) we read: “Those who possess not only the abilities of feeling and thinking, but also, by the goodness [of God], have been awarded spiritual and supernatural grace, will know [God] not only from those who exist, but also spiritually (since God is Spirit), above feeling and reason, completely becoming God (cf. quote from Maximus the Confessor. - D. M .) and in God knowing God (ἐν Θεῷ γινώσκοντες Θεόν)" 1076. Thus, the highest level of knowledge presupposes ecstasy and the elevation of a person who has achieved deification above his created limits 1077; this means that a person becomes uncreated by grace. Indeed, just below, Palamas testifies about the hesychast monks, presumably referring himself to them: “they completely lost sight of themselves and completely” became God’s (ὅλους δ’ἑαυτοὺς ὅλων ἑαυτών ἐξισταμένους καὶ ὅλους Θεοῦ γενομένους )" 1078 (cf. 2 Cor. 5:8). In the homily of St. Gregory gives this mystical experience a detailed theological explanation. It is necessary to pay close attention to the corresponding fragment, which is very reminiscent of the quoted words of Maximus the Confessor and the just given descriptions of Palamas himself: “And not only angels, but also saints from people partake of this Glory and Kingdom; but the Father and the Son, together with the Divine Spirit, possess this Kingdom by nature (by nature, φύσει), and the holy angels and people by grace (χάριτι) are worthy (εὐμοιροῦσιν), from this source receiving illumination (τὴν ἔλλαμψιν )" (445CD). Here the word ἔλλαμψις, like its related λαμπρότης, αἴγλη, φωτισμός, is used to indicate the action of the life-giving energy of God, visible to the righteous, deifying those who partake of it. An independent study of this group of “light vocabulary” within the framework of Byzantine homiletics on the Transfiguration represents a special problem, which we intend to address in the near future; however, we can already say that analysis of this kind of sample does not promise qualitatively new discoveries, because almost all preachers (excluding Origen and some early authors) are talking about the same eschatological experience of the Church, associated with the perception of the same Light of God 1079. As a result of deification, the very body of the righteous becomes spiritual, like the body of the Lord after the Resurrection: “After all, just as a body brought into action and moved by the soul [is] called spiritual, so there is also a spiritual body, brought into action by the Spirit of God in a supernatural way (ὑπερφυῶς)” (481C). This body will be consistent with the resurrected body of Christ, which Palamas calls the “body of glory,” i.e., corporeality will be transubstantiated during the resurrection and final salvation of man into a new, higher form of its existence, will be spiritualized and permeated with divine energies. The basis of this transubstantiation is laid primarily in the deification of our nature in the Hypostasis of our Lord Jesus Christ: “But thanks to the liberation of our nature from sin, [accomplished] in Christ, and obedience to God, we, clinging to Christ, have become children of goodwill (cf. Matt. 17:5 and 3:17) and beloved sons... so that the [Holy] Spirit also descends upon us and remains in us, and thanks to Him we will at the proper hour (κατὰ καιρὸν) ascend into heaven, when He who raised Christ from the dead will give life to our mortal (θνητὰ) bodies (since His Spirit will dwell in us), transforming ( μεταμορψώσας) the body of our humility (cf. Rom. 6:3–6; 8:11; 1 Cor. 15:44, 54; 2 Cor. 3:18; 4:10; Phil. 3:21) and making it conformable to the body of the glory of Christ ( with the help of which [body] we were enriched with immortality and were called to heaven..." (201 BC). The source of this transubstantiation is already laid in baptism: “...he who is regenerated by [accepting] divine baptism has assumed the ability (δύναμιν) to become conformed (σύμμορφος γενέαθαι) to the body of glory (glorified body, τῷ σώματι τῆς δόξης) Son of God" (217CD). These same motifs - and also in connection with the interpretation of the Transfiguration - are found, for example, in the works of one of the most interesting church thinkers of the 6th century. – St. Anastasia I of Antioch 1080. According to Anastasius, the enlightenment of Christ’s clothes on the mountain symbolized nothing more than the transformation of our bodies. This understanding of the Gospel narrative (Matthew 17:2) best expresses the idea of ​​conforming believers with the glory of God, which was to occupy such an important place in the homily of Palamas: “... in this way,” says the saint, “[Christ] will make us conformed to His glory (συμμόρφους τῆς δόξης αὐτοῦ) and will transform our bodies into spiritual and incorruptible” 1081. We find the same expressions in Palamas. As we see, Saint Gregory clearly follows the letter and spirit of the Bible and patristic Tradition. The idea of ​​the conformity of the righteous in the final resurrection with the enlightened and glorified body of Christ was one of the cornerstones of his worldview. It receives special development and revelation in two homilies on the Transfiguration. Calling on his listeners to become “sons of the day” (437A) 1082, Palamas advises them: “Now direct and guide (συντείνατε καὶ ἀνατείνατε), I ask [you], eye of reason (τῆς διανοίας) to the light of the Gospel preaching, in order to become in the meantime transformed by the renewal of your mind and, having thus attracted to yourself the divine splendor from above, to become conformed (σύμμορφοι) to the likeness (τῷ ὁμοιώματι) of the glory of the Lord, the face Who shone today on the mountain like a light” (Ibid.). Two interrelated ideas are expressed here: the transformation of nature as a result of the synergy of human efforts and the glory (=energy=grace) of God, achieved through the transformation of the mind as the dominant part of the soul. They appear for the first time not in homilies; and in his earlier works, Palamas, turning to the Lord, prays to Him: “May our minds be transformed in the light of Your glory...” 1083. He who has reached this state becomes “a fellow participant... in the Resurrection and Ascension of the Lord, an heir of God and a joint heir with Christ (see: Eph. 1:11)” (277C; cf.: 293A). This communication and inheritance are accomplished precisely through the experiential vision of the glory of God, which - as one of the energies - is identical to the Kingdom of God. So is St. Gregory of Sinai prays to Christ: “... fill our mind and word with glory, bringing us to You like Moses and Elijah...” 1084 Naturally, transfiguration—and deification—is accomplished by glory. Let us remember once again that this identification of the Kingdom of God with the vision of glory ultimately goes back to the New Testament (John 12:4, 11; etc.). Interpreting the Gospel, already St. Cyril of Alexandria (we will touch here only on the tradition of homiletics on the Transfiguration) says: “This very vision of glory can be called the Kingdom (Matthew 16:28) ...” 1085 Subsequently, the teaching about the unceasing ascent of the soul and spirit to God, which crowns the vision of light - the anticipation of the future splendor of the righteous - was only outlined by the early Fathers (St. Basil of Seleucia , Proclus of Constantinople) and developed in detail by the great teachers of the 7th and 8th centuries. (St. Anastasius of Sinai, John of Damascus, Andrew of Crete), and then St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia and especially Gregory Palamas in the 14th century. Let us dwell on the figure of St. Anastasia Sinaita, who reveals awareness of all these issues. St. Anastasius writes: “...this mountain depicted (ἐμόρφωσε) today in the most immutable image our formation [in the image] of Christ and conformity with Him (τὴν μόρφωσιν καὶ συμμόρφωσιν ἡμῶν καὶ Χριστοῦ ) . Today [the Lord] has transformed (ἀνέπλασε) the image of the earthly into the image of heavenly beauty... with Him let us be enlightened with intelligent eyes, freeing ourselves from spiritual outlines (τοῖς ψυχικοῖς χαρακτῆρσιν ἀνανεούμενοι) and being deified and transformed with Him, as He is (ὡς αὐτὸς συμμορφούμενοι), eternally deified (ἀεὶ Θεούμενοι) and changing for the better (ἐπὶ τὸ κρεῖττον)..." 1086. All these expressions denote living communication with God and seeing Him face to face; Thus, in Palamas “δυνάμει κρείττονος ἐνεργείας” means “by the power of the Holy Spirit” (428B). But the words “freeing oneself from mental contours” look somewhat ambiguous; Apparently, they bear some imprint of Evagrian mysticism. This assumption finds convincing confirmation in the way Anastasius advises the believer, using the example of the Apostle Peter: “Like Peter, soar (μετάρθητι) to the contemplation of God and His wonderful appearance (φαντασίαν)... come out of the world (ἔκστηθι κόσμου)... leave the flesh (κατάλειπε τὴν σάρκα), leave the creature (ἄφες τὴν κτίσιν) and rise (μετάβηθι ) to the Lord..." 1087 In these words one can discern a program of asceticism in the spirit of dematerialization, understood as deliverance from the flesh; such an approach to salvation is quite consistent with the Origenist mentality among Palestinian monasticism. While their echoes could persist until the 8th century, Anastasius developed his thought further, saying that Peter “... completely and in everything changed in heart, completely surpassed himself (ὅλως ἐξ αὐτοῦ γέγονεν), finally moving to God (ὅλως ἦν πρὸς Θεὸν ἐκδημῶν )....” 1088 . The use of the term St. in the last part of the phrase. The Maxim of the Confessor ἐκδημῶν from ἐκδημία (in the sense of the salvation of the soul as its final “transmigration” to God 1089) testifies to the congeniality of Anastasius’ thought with the paternal Tradition. The Sinai saint especially emphasizes the importance of God's conformation to the righteous and their transformation into the image and glory of God, showing the need for mutual human effort - ascetic - in response to the Divine call, and especially with regard to the relationship of this effort with the highest degree of achievement - ecstasy. But, it seems, the concept of “forsaking the flesh” should have been adjusted in a way that would be consistent with a more holistic and comprehensive program of Christian asceticism: one in which salvation is understood as the deification of not only the soul, but also the body. It is this kind of anthropology that Meyendorff called “biblical” 1090. And it is precisely this approach that we find in the great theologians of the Christian East: St. Anastasius I, John of Damascus and Theoliptus of Philadelphia. In particular, St. Palamas is very close to him. John of Damascus, in whose Homily for the Transfiguration we encounter the same idea in a characteristic “doxological” (from δόξα - glory) context: “We look at the glory of the unveiled (ἀνακεκαλυμμένῳ) face of the Lord, as if in a mirror ( κατοπτριζόμεθα), being transformed from glory into greater glory, for [this is accomplished] by the Spirit of the Lord" 1091. According to St. John, such transformation and glorification of human nature directly leads to deification 1092. A similar place is found in Palamas - in the Fortieth Homily, dedicated to St. John the Baptist (see § 8). The precursor to the doctrine under consideration can be found in Anastasius I of Antioch, who was the first in homiletics to connect the idea of ​​the Transfiguration of the Lord and the internal transformation of the human mind. Christ, according to the words of the saint, “...revealed that He Himself was being transformed together with the prophets (Moses and Elijah. - D. M.)" 1093, which directly refutes some of the newest interpreters who claim that on Mount Tabor the Transfiguration occurred only in the minds of the apostles 1094. This is wrong. If Christ had not been transformed, then He would not have transformed our mind - but “... in the presence of Jesus, enlightening the sovereign soul (φωτίζοντος τὸ ἡγεμονικόν) and shaping (μορφοῦντος) the mind in accordance with their own Divine image (μορφήν)" 1095, the prophets and apostles understand that the vision revealed on Tabor is a vision of the Kingdom of God... So, the doctrine of the transformation of the human mind by Christ as a condition for the transformation of human nature and deification began to be developed already at the first of the stages in the history of homiletics that we have identified. For Anastasius, weren’t the concepts of “enlightening the mind” and “forming” it in accordance with the Divine image synonymous? Subsequently, this teaching through St. John of Damascus reaches the hesychasts of the 14th century. (Sinait, Palamas) and is clarified and detailed by them, supplemented by extensive data from mystical experience. In any case, for Palamas the statement that the illumination of the mind by the glory of God forms it in the image of Christ does not contain anything unusual. This is understandable, since for the teacher of silence, light, glory and grace are one and the same reality: the visible face of God, turned ad extra, to the world, “... the visible face of God,” he says, “[is] God’s energy and grace” (133A). This condensed explanation of the most important point about the reality of deification as a personal meeting with Christ and the vision of God face to face sums up the previous Cappadocian-Maxican tradition and finally defines, legitimizing, the concept of “the energy of God.” The energies of God, according to Palamas, being communicated to the multitude of the faithful, remain separably indivisible and indiminutive - the participation of any of the energies (light, glory, grace...) means the reality of a living meeting with God. This is the most important position of St.’s teaching. Gregory considered it not only possible, but also necessary to convey to his listeners: “Even if someone perceives intelligent and divine sweetness and jubilation in full, [then] he will not harm others, for [this sweetness] remains indivisible” (420C) 1096. To complete the thought of the saint, we can say: deification remains a call to every Christian and the true meaning of his life. The experience of deification can become a personal experience for every believer. This experience is associated with mental prayer. The Lord taught us an example of it: “During prayer (Ἐν τῷ προσεύχεσθαι) He shone forth in this way and inexpressibly revealed to the chosen disciples that inexpressible Light in the presence of the supreme prophets, to show that prayer is a giver (πρόξενος) of this beatific vision...” (432A). What kind of prayer should be that can lead the mind of the one praying to the vision of light? Palamas inherited this task, as well as the answer to it, from his great teachers from among Athonite hesychasm. The “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention” says in this regard: “True and unfalse attention and prayer [consists in] the fact that the mind keeps the heart in prayer (ἐν τῷ προσεύχεσθαι) ...” 1097. Prayer must be stable, which corresponds to the third stage of the “Method” (ἡ τῆς προσευχῆς προσκαρτέρησις) 1098; in order to gain enlightenment, one must pray purely and in Truth (ἐν ἀληθείᾳ) 1099. St. teaches the same thing. Gregory Palamas. Let us continue the interrupted quotation: “...so that we understand that this radiance approaches and is revealed (ἀναφαίνεται) as a result of closeness to God in virtue and intelligent unity with Him (τῆς πρὸς αυτόν κατὰ νοῦν ἑνώσεως )" (432Α). So, Palamas calls careful good deeds and pure prayer performed by those who incessantly reach out (rush, τοῖς ... ἀνατεινομένοις) to God as mandatory conditions for unity with God (Ibid.). It is obvious that we are talking here about the fundamental requirement for Orthodox asceticism for the unity of doing and contemplation (πρᾶξις καὶ θεωρία), which, according to the views of the leading representatives of this asceticism, are completely inseparable from each other. So, according to Rev. Elijah Ekdiku, the difference between doing and contemplation is purely (as we would say) “dialectical” and lies in the different order of their succession among more and less experienced ascetics 1100. Mental unity with God is impossible without turning the mind inward and connecting it with prayer. The saints agree on this. John Climacus, Maximus the Confessor, John of Damascus, Nikephoros the Solitary and Palamas himself 1101. Although D. Staniloae 1102 pointed out that Palamas was familiar with the treatise of Nikephoros and with the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention,” it is important to note that we find the same teaching, but presented more concisely and succinctly, in the homily on the Transfiguration, and above all by St. Gregory Palamas. Thus, there is no point in dividing the works of Palamas into “hesychast” and “non-hesychast” - they all bear the imprint of the personal achievement and hesychast views of the teacher of silence. Note that the word ἡσυχία appears already in the homily on the Transfiguration of (pseudo-) John Chrysostom and even in the Armenian homily Elishe 1103. But this can hardly be considered as a prerequisite for Palamas’ teaching. At the same time, in Christian literature the use of this term was not anything unusual. As part of one of the oldest literary works dedicated to the initial stage of the history of Egyptian monasticism - “History of the Egyptian Monks” (the author is unknown; the work was created, apparently, in the 390s, at least until 401-402, when it is mentioned in the letters of Blessed Jerome 1104), - a sermon by the holy elder John of Lycia addressed to to the author and his companions; among other things, the elder utters the following words: “So you, my children, strive for silence (τὴν ἡσυχίαν), always accustom yourself to contemplation, so that in prayer your thoughts are pure” 1105. Thus, recorded by an unknown author (around the same time when St. John Cassian compiled his “Conversations of the Egyptian Fathers”), the teachings of the Egyptian elders, coupled with the instructions of St. Anthony, the brethren of the monastery he founded and the “Spiritual Discourses” of (Pseudo-) Macarius of Egypt 1106, formed the basis of the tradition of hesychast asceticism, which will be continued by St. Diadochos, John Climacus, Maximus the Confessor, Sinai, Athonite, Slavic (St. Nil of Sora, Romil), Georgian, Romanian, Russian and Greek silent monks. Being central to the Orthodox Church, this tradition of prayerful life with God could not help but be reflected in other kinds of teachings written by church leaders and thinkers. Among this kind of teaching in connection with the topic of light that interests us, perhaps the greatest (and justifiable) interest is in homiletics for the Transfiguration of the Lord, the celebration of which was introduced into Byzantine worship approximately during the 7th–8th centuries; in any case, from the 8th century. it is attested by the 1107 Church of Constantinople calendar. The most important text from the homiletical tradition, which directly precedes similar ideas and conclusions of St. Gregory, we find at St. John of Damascus. Here is the relevant fragment: “For the mother of prayer is silence (ἡ ἡσυχία), prayer is the revelation (ἐμφάνεια) of the glory of God. Because when we close (μύσωμεν) our feelings, draw closer to ourselves and to God and, freed from external, worldly vanity, go inside ourselves, then we will clearly see the Kingdom of God in ourselves. For Jesus [Christ], our God, said that the Kingdom of Heaven, that is, the Kingdom of God, “is within you” (Luke 17:21). So, the slaves and the Master prayed differently. After all, slaves approach the Lord with the help of prayer (δι’ αἰτήσεως), [driven] by fear and melancholy (πόθῳ), and prayer becomes a giver (πρόξενος) to the mind of transmigration (ἐκδημίας) to God and unity ..." 1108. So, there is a wide range of coincidences - both ideological and purely textual. All this proves that in his homiletical work, as in dogmatics, Palamas was directly guided by St. John. Further in this series it should be noted Rev. Nikephoros, according to which the ascetic enters within himself “thanks to prayer and the assistance of God (δι’ εὐχῆς καὶ συνεργείας Θεοῦ)” 1109, close “supervision of the mind” (νοὸς ἐπιστασίας) 1110, attention and mental silence (νοερὰν ἡσυχίαν) 1111, as a result of which “... the mind, if united with the soul, is filled with indescribable pleasure and joy” 1112 and becomes able to experience the Kingdom God, which, according to the saying of the Lord, is within us 1113. Elements of this teaching, some of which have been shown above, we find in other homily of Palamas. Thus, he calls on his listeners to ascend, as far as possible, into Divine peace, “... which is our mental contemplation (ἡ κατὰ νοῦν ἡμῶν θεωρία) and ascent (ἀνὰνευσις) through it to God” (225C). Here, it would seem, the moment of ecstasy is more emphasized than the introspection that Nikephoros speaks of, but already on the next page Palamas “corrects” the situation. Calling in the spirit of the pseudo-Chrysostom “Epistle to the Monks” (not earlier than the 10th century) to turn the mind away from every thought, no matter how good, Palamas gives advice in classical hesychast terms: “... and turn him (mind - D.M.) all to himself (πρὸς ἑαυτὸν) with constant attention and continuous prayer (δί’ ἐπιμόνου προσοχῆς καὶ ἀδιαλείπτου προσευχῆς); so [you] will enter, and he, into Divine rest...” (228C) 1114. This rest, as Palamas sees it, is identical with the rest of the seventh day, on which, according to the Bible, the Lord “...rested from all His work” (Gen. 2:3). The Archbishop of Thessalonica advises the believer to enter “...into that peace (ἐκείνην τὴν κατάπαυσιν), which is our mental contemplation (ἡ κατὰ νοῦν ἡμῶν θεωρία) 1115 and the ascent (ἡ...ἀνάνευσις) through him to God” (225C). So, contemplation is peace: but in the same way for His God, peace is contemplation. The God of Palamas is a living and personal God, the beginningless and continuously fulfilling love of the three Persons for each other (this, according to Radovic, is connected with the name of the Holy Spirit “Love”), and man is called to partake of the life of the Holy Trinity, Its beginningless movement and the streams of love It emits on the created cosmos and on man 1116. God Himself, to the extent that He reveals Himself to man, is the Supreme Model for a Christian, especially for a hesychast monk; not only the work of the Son, but also the work of the entire Holy Trinity should be imitated by the ascetic. “The beginningless action (Ἔργον) of God,” Palamas testifies, “[is] turning to Himself (ἡ πρὸς ἑαυτὸν ἐπιστροφή), for [God] was originally in motion ( ἐκινεῖτο γὰρ ἀνάρχως), contemplating Himself (τῇ ἑαυτοῦ θεωρία)” (228A). This aspect of the saint’s thought was closely studied by a major modern theologian and ascetic prayer writer, the spiritual child of St. Justin Popovich - Metropolitan Amfilohiy (Radovich). We can only (and we would like), in clarifying this teaching, which is difficult for our current understanding, but in fact not unexpected for Palamas, to quote the corresponding excerpt from the book of the Eminence Amphilochius: “The Spirit as “love” 1117 shows that His “resting” in the Son is not “inactivity” or some kind of passive immobility of the Spirit, but, on the contrary, His beginningless and genuine “action”, testifying to the constant and continuous communion of the Persons of the Holy Trinity. The Trinity also calls created beings to this “action” through their creation and re-creation in the Spirit. Only this kind of idea of the Spirit and the Trinitarian Divinity in general is able to overcome the Aristotelian-idolatrous concept of the “immobile” Divinity in favor of the biblical-patristic concept of the Divine, from eternity being in motion and appearing in time as the Creator (ἐν χρόνῳ δημιουργοῦ θεότητος ). Thus, the call to the “rest” of God on the seventh day, leading to the eighth - the day of the Resurrection, is for St. Gregory with a call to the “unceasing work (ἔργον)” of God and, therefore, to the “genuine work (ἐργασίαν)” of man. And using the image of “love” to designate the Spirit, the saint wants to show that God does not become Love thanks to creation in time and love for mankind, but that He is Love from eternity, being from eternity the Trinity... this love... is one, but at the same time “triple” [lit. - “triple” (τρισσουμένη)] with the eternal glory, energy and radiance of Divine Being, that is, the one trinitarian essence of God, from which and in which radiance created beings also receive existence” 1118. At the same time, as Radovich notes, the analyzed images of “deeds” and “love” relate only to the energy of God, which allows communion to itself, without in any way affecting the essence of God and without defining it 1119. The most important activity on the part of a person, leading him to communion - through energies - with the life of the Holy Trinity, is keeping the commandments, participating in the Sacraments, asceticism, contemplation and prayer (the importance of the last two components of spiritual life - along with the Eucharist - is especially emphasized by the Eastern Christian tradition, including St. Gregory Palamas). The Lord Himself set an example of this work, praying on Mount Tabor before the light cloud of the Holy Trinity overshadowed Him. Its result is the enlightenment and deification of the mind 1120, and then the soul, and (after the Last Judgment) the entire nature of the righteous, including the body. The beginnings of the sanctification of the body are also laid in this life. “And when a whole person is internally united and merged with the love of God,” testifies the Rev. John Climacus, - then, in his outer appearance, on his body, as in a mirror, he expresses the lordship of his soul. This is how Moses the Seer of God became famous (see: Exodus 34:29–35)" 1121. And so - together with the body - the righteous will be glorified after the Last Judgment: “... having lived together ( συνδιαιτώμενοι ) with [all] from the ages [former] saints 1122 in unspeakable bliss ( ἐν ἀῤῥήτῳ τρυφῇ) 1123 in the bosom of Abraham (ἐν τοῖς κόλποις τοῦ Ἀβραὰμ) 1124, from where all torment, pain and groaning fled (ἀπέδρα)" (340CD). A person acquires the guarantee of this bliss already in earthly life. Those who were θεωροί (contemplatives) and - partially - μέτοχοι (participants) of the grace of God, not only increase in the measure of θεωρία (contemplation) and communion (the expression “in unspeakable bliss” precisely indicates its magnitude, incommensurably greater than all earthly things and this earthly in its jubilation superior), but also become - each in his own measure 1125 - κοινωνοί (companions), κληρονόμοι (heirs) and συμπολῖται (cohabitants) (all these are Palamas’ terms; see quotes above) God Himself and “all the saints from the ages.” It seems that in this case it is much more important to emphasize the commonality of these terms, which reveal the unity of the eschatological ideal of Orthodoxy (being with God and communion with Him by grace = energy), rather than the obviously minor differences between them: the first (i.e., community) determines and conditions the second, directing the entire thought of the hesychasts and St. Gregory Palamas. This is the teaching of the Hesychasts and St. Gregory Palamas, whose dogmatic premises were revealed by the Orthodox Church at the Fourth and Sixth Ecumenical Councils, and then at the Local Councils of Constantinople in the 14th century. (especially 1341 and 1351). The fact that a certain stream of this teaching, primarily the teaching about prayer and collecting the mind, penetrated into middle and late Byzantine homiletics on the Transfiguration (we especially note the homilies of (pseudo-) Ephraim the Syrian, (pseudo-) Anastasius I, St. John of Damascus and St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia) once again proves the continuity ascetic-mystical and actually dogmatic theology in Byzantium (characteristic of Orthodoxy as a whole). We find a summary of this theology in the homily of St. Gregory Palamas, especially in two sermons (Nos. 34 and 35) delivered on the feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord. To summarize our consideration of the soteriological and eschatological themes in the works of St. Gregory, it is finally impossible not to point out the productivity of outstanding Byzantine theologians: their thought is like a mountain stream, which, overcoming steep cliffs, continues to supply us with living water. Their thought remains relevant for us. The call they expressed and the path indicated for the transformation of human nature correspond to the main call of Christianity to believers - to imitate God and become conformed to Him. The Christian faith was never completely mixed with this world, but carried with it an eschatological leaven (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21; 1 Cor. 5:6; Gal. 5:9), foreshadowing the coming transformation of the world. Palamas was able to give a decisive impetus to the theological revival of the 14th century because he combined a careful and protective attitude towards patristic Tradition with a wealth of personal spiritual experience, which allowed him to generate new ideas. This is true both for him and for his predecessors - especially those who lived in the 6th-8th centuries. Completing (in its main outlines) the ascetic-mystical and anthropological tradition of the East, Palamas embodied in his creations such fundamental features as mystical realism and Christocentrism (as opposed to various kinds of Platonic-Origenistic tendencies - from Origen and Evagrius to John Italus, Nilus of Calabria, Eustratius of Nicea and Gregoras with Barlaam and Akindin) 1126. In this dual soteriologically and eschatologically colored perspective, the ascetic experience and anthropological teaching of the great Eastern Fathers - such as St. Andrew of Crete, Anastasius Sinaite, John of Damascus, Theoliptus of Philadelphia, Gregory of Sinaite and Gregory Palamas - along with their emphasis on the decisive role of the transformation of human nature in achieving deification - acquire truly universal significance. This was not yet the last word in Byzantine anthropology. But this was perhaps its most sublime - and at the same time balanced and spiritually realistic - justification. § 8. A clear example of “accomplished eschatology”: the image of St. John the Baptist as interpreted by St. Gregory Palamas Information content of homilies 1127 St. Gregory Palamas, the spiritual, semantic and factual potential inherent in them, the interweaving of news about various events of Sacred and secular history, their assessments and interpretations have not yet been properly analyzed and, moreover, not even assessed by science. Without repeating what was said on this issue in the introduction, we note that the best views of modern scientists on the homilies of Palamas as a promising source on social history, at the same time seemingly little clarifying the basic ideas of hesychast theology of that time, were expressed in the dictionary article by Meyendorff. This is what he wrote about the meeting of homily of the teacher of silence: “...conservé dans des nombreux mss, il constitue un élément important de son héritage du point de vue historique et théologique. Sa personnalité y apparaît comme celle d 'un pasteur directement intéressé à la vie quotidienne du peuple de Dieu, à la justice sociale et à la paix civile, très différente de la mentalité plus académique et intellectualiste de ses adversaires. Les références à l’hésychasme y sont rares (my italics – D. M.), la polémique presque inexistante. “Il n’y a pas cependant contradiction entre cette activité pastorale et ses oeuvres théologiques, car c’est bien son expérience ecclésiale qu’il entendait défendre dans ses divers écrits” 1128 . If the last phrase does not cause objections, then we would dare to make some adjustments to the highlighted statement. First of all, let us point out Palamas’ interpretation of the life of the Mother of God in the church as a life worthy of imitation by a hesychast—moreover, the life of a perfect hesychast 1129. But doubts also arise based on a careful reading of other places in the homily. The experience of such a reading convinces us that: a) Palamas was aware of the writings of the hesychast fathers who preceded him - from St. John of Damascus to St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia, which is proven by the presence of hidden and explicit quotations from these Fathers in Palamas, as well as the presence of a number of parallel motifs in their writings and Palamas's homilies; b) he himself repeatedly offered his flock - among which, presumably, there were monks - instructions in the hesychast spirit (see § 7). One such motive, associated with the teacher’s interpretation of silence of one of the central images of Sacred History, and with an emphatically hesychast interpretation, will be the subject of consideration in this paragraph. It seems to us that, despite the abundance of research literature and the relatively narrow range of long-known sources, the fruits of primary source study regarding Byzantine hesychasm have not yet been exhausted. In this case, a careful comparative historical analysis of sources and groups of sources will make it possible to establish new connections between them, helping to clarify our ideas about the ways of development of Byzantine culture. This is the focus of the paragraph, which serves as an illustration of how the general ideas put forward by Palamas are applied by him when considering a specific image of New Testament history: such an approach may turn out to be promising both from the point of view of historical-theological and literary-philological analysis. The dialectic of the relationship between the idea and the image is such that the image serves to reveal the idea, which can be difficult to grasp in a “pure” form, and the idea serves to comprehensively and deeply clarify and understand the image. An additional criterion for the adequacy of our results will be a comparison of the “image of Mnische’s life”, which is depicted by Palamas using the example of St. John the Baptist, with the image of Palamas himself, which was created by his contemporaries and followers, who thought in many ways similar to him. For this purpose, Encomius Palamas of St. is involved. Patriarch Philotheus (551B–656C), and the lesser-known Encomius of Patriarch Nile of Constantinople (1379–1388) (6550–6780). The information they contain is very indicative for understanding the spiritual and psychological climate of Byzantine society in the middle and second half of the 14th century and the influence on it of the ideas and preaching of St. Gregory Palamas. A careful reading of Palamas' sermons reveals in them a number of motifs characteristic of the Sinai-Athos hesychast tradition. This could be a quotation, hardly noticeable to the “naked eye,” or a teaching about the Divine Light (156B; etc.), or the use of the term ἡσυχία itself (236C; 404C). The first case is especially interesting. In the preamble of the Sixth Homily, an exhortation to fasting (76C–88A), we encounter an almost verbatim quotation from the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention.” Let's compare two texts: The similarity is very great, which suggests a direct quotation of the “Method” by Palamas; in this case, the discrepancies can be explained by differences in the manuscript tradition of the Method. A little lower we find another hint from Palamas about this place: καλῶς ἐργαζόμενοι τὸ καλὸν ... (77C). By work (ἐργαζόμενοι) Palamas understands cleansing from passions and the acquisition of continuous prayer, which he identifies with continuous remembrance of God, not necessarily associated with breathing practices 1131. The influence of the “Method” in Greek theology was long-lasting: even in the Jerusalem Patriarch Jeremiah II the Light (Tranos) there is a familiar maxim: “Καὶ τὸ καλὸν, οὐ καλὸν, ὅταν μὴ καλῶς γίνηται » 1132. As I. Panayotopoulos emphasizes in this regard (who did not identify the quote we are interested in), Orthodoxy for the patriarch means a just cause (ὣρθοπραξία) 1133: undoubtedly, this position touches the depths of the religious consciousness of the Greeks. Ultimately, this is a provision about asceticism, work (ἄσκησις), without which not only monastic life, but also salvation in general is unthinkable 1134. Let's return to our chosen plot. The sermon we are interested in is entitled “About the All-Honorable Forerunner and Baptist John of Christ.” It is number 40 in the general collection of Palamas homilies and ranks in the Minya edition col. 496A–513D. The sermon can be divided into three sections: 1) introductory section - “exposition” of the central character - St. John the Baptist (496A–500D); 2) the image of the anti-hero - Herod - as “a model ... of all evil” ( παράδειγμα ... πάσης κακίας – 500D; πάσης κακίας τε καὶ δυσσεβείας πρόγραμμα – 508Β) (500D, from the words: Ἐπεὶ δὲ Ἡρώδης ... – 508D); 3) the final part is an exhortation-call to live in the image of the Forerunner, who is portrayed by the author as an example of a hesychast monk (508D, from the words: Εἰ μὲν οὖν καὶ ταῦτα ἦσαν αἰώνια ... – 514D, until the end of the sermon and concluding doxology). We will be mainly interested in the first and third parts, in which Palamas, interpreting one of the central images of Sacred History, der Heilsgeschichte, in fact, presents to the flock “an image of the Mnische life”, imbued with hesychast motives. It is they who determine the specifics of the image - and therefore of the sermon as a whole. Homily 40, as we will try to show, can be considered one of the most important sources on the history of the theology of mental doing in Byzantium in the 14th century. In the first part, Palamas, having glorified the birth of the Forerunner (496CD), points to his virginity - in the image of the prophet Elijah (παρθένος γὰρ καὶ οὗτος κατ’ ἐκεῖνον - 497Α). He also notes the fact that the Forerunner appeared as a desert dweller to a greater extent than Elijah (ἐρημοπολίτης μᾶλλον ἢ ἐκεῖνος) (Ibid.) 1135. Here our attention is drawn to the word ἐρημοπολίτης, which has liturgical origins and is an accurate description of the way of life of the Forerunner. It appears in this sermon once again, and the author makes it clear that the Forerunner stood at the origins of the later tradition of desert dwelling: ... The root itself -πολίτης goes back to πολιτεία in the sense of “way of life” 1136 and does not carry “political” (in our sense) connotations. Moreover, from the very beginning, the supra-worldliness of John is emphasized: “...before knowing the world, being in the womb [of his mother], John was pre-worldly ( ὢν, ὑπερκόσμιος ὁ Ἰωάννης ἦν )" (497CD). From the very first steps he calls Saint Palamas “an animated instrument of grace” 1137. But not only as a weapon: the ascetic exploits of the Forerunner are then emphasized, and this description, obviously based on Hebrews 11:38, is of particular interest to us: “Since the world was not worthy of him (οὐκ ἦν ἄξιος αὐτοῦ ὁ κόσμος), [he], as they say, from a young age (ἐξ ἁπαλῶν ... ὀνύχων) he constantly lived in the deserts (ταῖς ἐρήμοις ... ἐνδιητᾶτο), leading a non-covetous and solitary life, free from [worldly] worries (ἄσκευον, ἀπεριμέριμνον, ἀπραγμάτευτον)... living by God alone, looking to God alone, making God his delight” (500A) 1138. These words express a whole program of monastic life, of which John serves as an example: in the same way, hagiographers 1139 report about Palamas himself that he, “having renounced all material attachments (ὑλικῆς προσπαθείας),” considered it to be good and sought to “abide in silence with God ( τοῦ καθ’ ἡσυχίαν Θεῷ συνεῖναι )" 1140 . And this striving, which lies at the basis of hesychast asceticism, and monastic work in general, cannot but be continuous. “For the nature of Good,” according to St. Gregory of Nyssa, one of the most important authorities for Palamas among representatives of the Eastern patristic tradition, is such that it [continuously] attracts those who look at it" 1141. The pure in heart look at the Good (Matthew 5:8). In accordance with this commandment - as well as with the hesychast aspirations of Palamas himself - the Forerunner is depicted by him as “miraculously turning to himself, as if being some otherworldly [being] and revealing [to the world] a superhuman 1142 way of life (ἐπιστρέψας πρὸς ἑαυτὸν μετὰ θαύματος, ὡς ἐξηλλαγμένος τις ὢν, καὶ ὑπὲρ ἄνθρωπον πολιτείαν ἐπιδεικνύμενος )" (500BC). Turning the mind to itself, returning to itself, entering into itself are the central themes of Sinai and Athonite hesychasm 1143. To achieve internal composure, appropriate psychosomatic practices were developed. Yes, Rev. Hesychius of Sinai advises: “Do not direct all [your] effort towards the flesh; but [strive] with the same strength for [internal] achievement; and turn your entire mind to [your] entrails” 1144. There is no talk here yet about the method of this internal doing; it is well known that such a method - bringing the mind into the heart - was developed starting from the 10th - 19th centuries on Holy Mount Athos and was formulated in a classical form in the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention” 1145 and - perhaps in somewhat more detail - by Rev. Nikephoros the Solitary 1146. Palamas, on the other hand, is characterized by a different emphasis - exclusively on spiritual practices, and in this sense he turns out to be even closer to the Sinaitic hesychasm of the Middle Byzantine period than to the ascetic practice of the contemporary “Sinaitic” hesychasm (a branch of St. Gregory the Sinaite - and his followers). Thus, Palamas advises regarding the mind: “...turn it all to himself (πρὸς ἑαυτὸν) with constant attention and continuous prayer (δι’ ἐπιμόνον προσοχῆς καὶ ἀδιαλείπτου προσευχῆς ); so [you] will enter, and he, into Divine rest...” (228C). By gathering itself, the mind gathers within itself all the forces of the soul, entering the “sacred chamber of love” 1147. And according to St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia, the monk, turning to himself, enters “... the inner abode (τῷ ... φρουρίῳ) of the soul, which is the abode of Christ (οἶκος Χριστοῦ); peace, joy and tranquility are clearly visible there” 1148: isn’t this the same place that Palamas talks about? And isn’t it the heart, this deepest point of the human being, in which, according to the “Method,” “all spiritual powers are found” 1149? The answer to this question seems to us to be affirmative. As we have seen, Athonite hesychasm developed - through the efforts of its best representatives - the idea of ​​the heart as the center of the soul, its “citadel” and mystical core, where love for God and attraction to Him arises. For a God-loving heart, this attraction becomes a joy. It is from this perspective that Palamas describes St. John the Baptist from the very first lines of his sermon-encomia in his honor. So, first of all – love. And the meaning of monasticism is to find love. The kind of love that transforms the personality, taking it beyond the boundaries of the created... “And since love is inspired by an endless impulse,” wrote Fr. Dumitru Staniloae, “she finds complete satisfaction only in meeting God, Who is infinite” 1150. And this meeting, rencontre, of the Forerunners with the Lord is described by Palamas with abundant use of the corresponding biblical topic: the formula of the witness of the Son by the Father (Matthew 12:18; 17:5; Mark 9:7; 2 Pet.1:17) 1151 is contaminated with John 1:29 (cf. Palamas: ὁ ἀμνὸς τοῦ Θεοῦ... ὁ τὴν ἁμαρτίαν αἵρων τοῦ κόσμου – 500C), while what follows is an allusion specifically to Luke – Luke 3:4 (in Palamas: Ἑτοιμάσας δὲ οὕτω τὴν ὁδὸν αὐτοῦ – Ibid.). Let us note back in 501B a borrowing from Mark 1:4: κηρύσσων βάπτισμα μετανοίας. Of Palamas’s own interpretations, the most important is the reference to the hermitage of the Forerunner that ends the first part (cf., however, 497A): “... left the crowd [of the people], entrusting them to the Lord (ἀναχωρεῖ τοῦ πλήθους, τῷ Κυρίῳ τούτους παραδούς )" (500D). The anchorage of the Forerunner and his role as a model for modern Palamas monasticism will interest us now. In connection with the interpretation of the image of Herod, we note the remark of Palamas: “... the wicked by nature tend to hate those who reproach [them]” 1152. Formulated in the form of a universal law, it could be perceived by Palamas’ listeners as an indication of his opponents in the hesychast disputes, among whom by that time the leading role was played by Akindinus and Nicephorus Gregoras (cf. also a possible allusion to them in 521B). Among Herod’s vices, a special place is given to vanity (ἡ κενοδοξία), which is traditional for monastic literature (cf. the Life of Anthony, as well as the teachings of Hesychius of Sinai) 1153. But every passion must be tempered by reason; This is what Herod lacked - and therefore he is not just a sinner, but also a bad ruler. After all, the idea that the mind was created by God as βασιλεὺς ... καὶ αὐτοκράτωρ τῶν παθῶν (505C) is characteristic of Byzantine culture as a whole - not only for the theology of smart doing, but also for the “political theology” of the deacon Agapit, reflected in his famous “Exposition of the Exhortatory Chapters” addressed to Justinian (527) 1154. In particular, in chapter 33, the basileus is recommended to have an unyielding mind in the adverse circumstances of life 1155; it is explained below that this must be constancy in goodness 1156. In this situation - the opposition of a righteous anchorite and a ruler given over to passions and lawlessness - Herodias is identified with a sin-loving will, or inclination of the will - τῆς φιλαμαρτήμονος γνώμης (505D). This concept is characteristic of the anthropology of Palamas and goes back to the theology of St. Maximus the Confessor with his distinction between natural and gnomic will: the latter acts as the source of sin 1157. The cause of social disasters is sin, says Palamas in the First Homily (13B), and the cause of sin is the sin-loving will (Ibid. C). Herod appears as its visual personification under the pen of the preacher. The contrast between Herod and St. John the Baptist is thought of by Palamas as final and therefore especially striking: “So, two icons (εἰκόνες) stand before [our gaze] today, extremely (καθ’ ὑπερβολὴν) hostile and opposite ( ἀνθεστηκυῖαι καὶ ἀντικείμεναι) to each other..." (508B). The totality of such characteristics, present in Palamas’s homilies (cf., for example, about the Mother of God: 469A), allows us to say that the category of image is organically inherent in his theology, while there can hardly be any talk of any iconoclastic tendencies in the views of the teacher of silence 1158. By what parameters do these images oppose each other? In what terms does Palamas describe their confrontation? These are, first of all, two oppositions: “vice – virtue” (κακία – ἀρετή) and “unbelief – faith” (δυσσέβεια or ἀσέβεια – εὐσέβεια) (508В–509В). Emphasizing that the Forerunner was executed “not for faith, but for virtue” (509A), Palamas asks the question: “how much less evil is sin (ἡ ἁμαρτία) compared to unbelief, so much greater good would it be to fight for virtue in the front ranks ( προχινδυνεῦσαι τῆς ἀρετῆς ). How, then, for that greater [good], i.e., for faith, if it were necessary, would not the one who gave it for this lesser one (i.e., for virtue. - D.M.) lay down his soul?” (509V). Speaking about the battle with sin, Palamas naturally uses military vocabulary and imagery; her role noticeably increases towards the end of the sermon 1159. The theme of spiritual warfare and the theme of monasticism are naturally intertwined. It is noteworthy that Palamas denotes monasticism itself with a word taken from military vocabulary. Forerunner, according to St. Gregory, “foresaw as a prophet that there would be a monastic rank (literally - detachment: τὸ μοναδικὸν ... τάγμα), which will be able to imitate him to the proper extent over time δυνησόμενον)" (509Α). After all, the archbishop continues to imitate the Forerunner, “we [who lead] a monastic lifestyle (ἡμεῖς, οἷς ὁ βίος μονήρης)” should imitate the Forerunner (Ibid.); and the first task in this case is to despise the here, fleeting blessings, to strive for the future and indestructible ones (Ibid.). The Fathers had already imitated the Forerunner (512A). He “found a refuge in the desert (εὗρε καταφυγὴν τὴν ἔρημον)” (509C); we “find refuge (καταφυγὴν) in these monasteries dedicated to God (φροντιστήρια)” (Ibid.). The parallel and, moreover, based on the Tradition of the Church, going back to apostolic times, is the relationship between the three stages of the history of Salvation: the Sacred history of the New Testament; patristic history, in which Palamas explicitly includes the Fathers of monasticism (both desert dwellers and Cenobites) 1160; history, contemporary Palamas, acquires the proper persuasiveness and clarity under the author’s pen. It is difficult to single out any of the fundamental themes of Christian spirituality that would not be touched upon in these pages: this is eschatologism, and the doctrine of imitation of Christ (and the call to follow Him), characteristic (to name just one name) for St. Gregory of Nyssa, and for Palamas himself 1161; and the idea of ​​the inextricable connection between Scripture and Tradition. Let's dwell a little more on the last aspect. People like Herod, according to Palamas, “do not believe in the inspired Scripture and contradict it” (508A). This does not look like an accidental remark, since Scripture has long been considered in the Eastern tradition as the main source of teaching and - thereby - the theology of smart doing, despite the fact that this doing itself in the Orthodox tradition is based on Scripture and does not contradict it 1162. As an example, we can recall the beginning of the famous sermon of St. Anthony: “For teaching, the scriptures (τὰς μὲν γραφὰς ἱκανὰς εἶναι πρὸς διδασκαλίαν) are sufficient...” 1163. This teaching (or teaching) in Scripture, as shown in the 4th chapter of the same Life of Anthony and recently noted by V. M. Lurie 1164, gradually turns into the practice of meditation on the text of Scripture (cf. Ps. 1:2) and continuous prayer with the words of Scripture, designated as κρυπτὴ μελέτη. We find a similar designation - ἱερὰ μελέτη - in Palamas in a very important place (253D-256A), where the teacher of silence, following tradition, shows how the practice of sacred teaching develops from the knowledge of Scripture (τῆς γραφῆς εἴδησιν) and diligence (ἱερὰν... μελέτην καὶ σπουδὴν ). This means continuous cleansing of the mind from bad thoughts and passions: all “care of the soul (τὴν κατὰ ψυχὴν μελέτην)” (336C) should be directed to God. Yes, St. Gregory of Nyssa compares ἡ τῶν θείων μελέτη καὶ τὸ τῆς προσευχῆς ἀδιάλειπτον (“care of [things] divine 1165 and continuity of prayer") 1166. When a person reaches such a state, he becomes worthy of “divine visitation (ἐπισκοπῆς θείας)” (256A). That is why Palamas says that he offers his listeners prophetic, apostolic and paternal words (508A), which denounce the infidels. The experience of tradition is inextricably linked with the spiritual experience of the individual working within its framework - and ultimately driven by the same Spirit. The Russian word “sobornost” well conveys this feeling of authenticity, that is, the authenticity of the spiritual experience of the Church, which comes to us from the pages of Palamas’ sermons. Let us finally note the plasticity and relief of the central image of the sermon: St. John is “the pillar (στήλη) of all virtue and piety” (508B). This designation is typical only for especially revered figures of the House of Salvation, the heroes of the encomium sermons dedicated to them, and first of all for the Mother of God 1167 and St. Demetrius of Thessalonica. Palamas also calls the latter στήλη τις ... παντὸς καλοῦ (537Α) 1168. Thus St. John, like St. Demetrius, takes his rightful place in the gallery of images of Sacred History. Speaking about the language of the sermon, one cannot fail to note a series of aorists, which, like snapshots, stitch a short story about Eve: “... she saw, she thirsted, she ate, she was filled with death, she deceived her husband...” 1169 This rapid chord emphasizes the immediacy and lightning speed of the Fall as the initial moment of the historical drama. The narrative benefits from stereoscopicity and dynamism, thanks to the successful (and, one might say, skillful) combination of fundamental positions and dogmas verbally expressed in its ideological and figurative fabric with the subtlety and balance of elaboration of details and historical nuance. Having given the homily such a depth of perspective, Palamas again returns to the problems that occupy him in contemporary life, and first of all, monastic life. The problems of ecclesiology, anthropology and soteriology turn out to be inextricably linked from the point of view of the theology of smart doing. For Palamas, monasteries are heaven on earth, where the famous tree of the knowledge of good and evil is located 1170. We are inclined to see in these words an allusion (if not a direct allusion) to the First Speech against the Arsenites of St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia 1171. According to the latter, the Church of God “... is paradise (παράδεισός ἐστιν ... ἡ ἐκκλησία τοῦ Θεοῦ); trees are Orthodox shepherds..., ordained by Orthodox priests... for the bishop is a mediator (μεσίτης) between God and people, constantly raising to God entreaties, petitions, prayers and thanksgivings for the people..." 1172 "Like some kind of paradise (ὥσπερ δέ τινα παράδεισον), planted [the Son of God] local Churches...", we read a little earlier 1173. But what Theoliptus speaks about on the scale of the entire Church, Palamas gives a monastic-mystical (in the sense of indicating internal, spiritual activity) dimension. We are talking about the spiritual feat of a monk - therefore, about personal deeds. But everyone - and therefore all together, Palamas teaches, needs to listen to “the one wise and good Counselor” (512B) and “follow the trail (κατ’ ἴχνος ἔπεσθαι)” of those who followed Him (Ibid.). Why? There are at least two reasons. First: “After all, both in the desert (τὴν ἔρημον), and in these sacred abodes (τὰ ἱερὰ ταῦτα σεμνεῖα) there are [wild] animals and beasts (θηρία καὶ κτήνη)" (Ibid.). The theology of monastic work has traditionally been based on the words of the Apostle (Eph. 6:12; 1 Cor. 7:29), and Palamas is no exception 1174. The fathers have already endured this battle, which means they can show us the way. This is the second reason: since we saw their outcome (τὴν ἔκβασιν εἴδομεν) (512Β), since we made sure that the Fathers reached the victorious end, then we must follow them. And Palamas calls on each of his listeners to the best of his ability (πρὸς δύναμιν ἕκαστος) to imitate the life of the Forerunner (Ibid.). Which way did the Forerunner go in the desert? In what, from the point of view of St. Gregory Palamas, what is his contribution to the history of smart doing? It is here that in the image of the Forerunner, outlined by Palamas, the features of a hesychast monk are revealed. “This,” says Palamas, “was constantly with his head uncovered, which is a sign of continuous prayer and boldness before God. For a husband should pray uncovered, according to the apostolic saying, so that we can look at the glory of the unveiled Face of the Lord, as if in a mirror...” (512B) 1175. The last part of the phrase is especially important: it is almost a direct quote from the “Sermon on the Transfiguration of the Lord” by St. John of Damascus (c. 730) 1176. Let's compare: The difference is insignificant - in one voice and one article, so this passage from Palamas can be considered a deliberately borrowed and modified (from Indicativus to Conjunctivus) quotation. This is also supported by the fact that we encounter an exact quotation from the same sermon of Damascus (and a number of important allusions to it) in the 35th homily of Palamas, dedicated precisely to the Transfiguration of 1178. The works of Damascus represent one of the main pillars of Palamas's hesychast anthropology. But first of all, the attention of the historian of hesychasm is attracted by the mention of unceasing prayer (ἀδιαλείπτου προσευχῆς). This expression means the most important stage of hesychast work, “for the goal of Christian and especially monastic life is the union of man with God, his deification by the grace of God, which he receives through unceasing prayer” 1179. Going back to the apostolic saying (1 Thess. 5:17), it is very frequent in hesychast texts. It is difficult to indicate all possible parallels, so we will focus on only two - from Palamas himself (228C) and from St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia. Palamas in the indicated place talks about turning the mind to oneself “by constant attention and continuous prayer (δι’ ἐπιμόνου προσοχῆς καὶ ἀδιαλείπτου προσευχῆς)". The purpose of this doing is to enter the Divine rest of the seventh day (Ibid.) 1180. As if developing the thought of Palamas and explaining the essence of what is happening, Theoliptus writes: “... a heavenly man is being created, supported by perfect attention and continuous prayer” 1181. This prayer is primarily the work of monks: let them hide, says Palamas, those who are so connected with this world that “... cannot [do] this constantly (διηνεκῶς), like us” (512C). The theme of withdrawal from the world sounds very clear: continuous prayer, being mental, is designed to distract the mind from this world and turn it to Christ. Purification of the mind, or smart doing, is the main component of asceticism. Here is the program for the spiritual advancement of a monk that Palamas outlines: “We, having worthily (καλῶς) removed ourselves from the world, will also withdraw from it with reason (τῇ διανοίᾳ) 1182, psalms, hymns and spiritual prayers (προσευχαῖς πνευματικαῖς) 1183 connecting our minds with Christ 1184, and let us make ourselves a habitation (σκήνωμα) (cf. John 1:14) of [His] saving name, remembering ( μνημονεύοντες) about Him for whose sake we left the world” (512C). The goal of spiritual work here is the Crucified and Risen Christ, the true Son of God, and not some impersonal absolute, the Origenist enada or anything else 1185. Therefore, hesychasm, as has been repeatedly noted, cannot be understood in isolation from Eastern Christian spirituality as a whole, since it represents one of the highest expressions of this spirituality. The hesychast call is a concentrated expression of the basic Christian call to believers to follow Christ in order to become conformed to Him and through this become worthy of divine life: “to become a part of the sacrament,” as Patriarch Nil says, repeating or quoting St. Maximus the Confessor, - everything that God is by nature [of His]" 1186. Having made himself the dwelling place of the name of Christ, this “mura poured out (καὶ μύρον ἐκκενωθὲν ὄνομα αὐτοῦ), thanks to which [He] filled the universe with divine fragrance (εὐωδίας)” (240ВС), we will come closer to deification. In the above lines, the energetic interpretation of the name attracts attention. It is clear that the aspiration of the mind to God, continuous prayer and invocation of the name of God becomes a real force, a genuine invocation of the Divine Personality (or, more precisely, the Superpersonality), in response to which God grants deification. The one who left the world for this, already in this life “... thirsts (ποθεῖ) for perfect unity with Him” (512C), that is, with God. This unity “...is achieved through constant remembrance of Him, which purifies the mind” 1187. It is no coincidence that the themes of remembering God and praying to God are connected with each other. The memory of God, coupled with the repetition of the Jesus Prayer, is taught by the already anonymous (opus pseudo-Chrysostomicum) “Epistle to the Monks” (no later than the 10th–11th centuries) 1188. This topic acquires particular significance in the First Monastic Oration of St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia, where the monk is constantly advised to “remember God” (μνημόνευε Θεοῦ) 1189, since the mind, through the power of memory, approaches God in love (διὰ τῆς μνήμης ἐρωτικῶς τῷ Θεῷ προσχωρῶν), “illuminated with divine radiance, receiving a guarantee of future splendor” 1190. The memory of God connects the mind with the Remembered, “for the memory of God is the vision of God” 1191. As a result, the mind becomes free from everything base and gains the ability to pray continuously 1192; according to St. Theoliptus, God creates “a man who thinks in a heavenly way (οὐρανόφρων)” 1193. St. Theoliptus also calls: “Inscribe in your minds (εἰς τὰς διανοίας) the name of Christ, so that Christ may be imprinted (μορφωθῇ) in you, making you heirs of God and His joint heirs ( συγκληρονόμους)" 1194. The motif of inheritance appears constantly in Palamas 1195. The number of parallels can easily be multiplied, which is another proof of the fact of the undeniable influence of the ideas and teachings of St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia on St. Gregory Palamu. St. John of Damascus, St. Theoliptus and the unknown author of The Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention, along with St. Maximus the Confessor, turn out to be the closest spiritual and historical predecessors of the teacher of silence in anthropology. So, according to the hesychast tradition, the results of which Palamas sums up, the memory of God, the experience of seeing God and the purification of the eye of the spirit / mind / soul are inextricably linked 1196. Having mentioned unity with God as the goal of hesychast work, Palamas, as it were, sums up what has been said about the spiritual path of the monk: “So, let us clear the eye of reason (τὸ τῆς διανοίας ὄμμα), striving ( ἀνατείνοντες) to God in deed, word and thought” (512C). We find a parallel place in the Second Homily for the Ascension (22 in total). Here Palamas addresses his listeners with the question: “Shall we not cleanse the vision of the soul (τὸν τῆς ψυχῆς ὀφθαλμὸν), stripping off all carnal and spiritual impurity, in order to see a Light greater than the sun and, moreover, become children (τέκνα) of that Lamp and other lamps - according to communion...?” (296A). God is described here through light vocabulary, which is most consistent with the spiritual experience of the Eastern Church. It is noteworthy that Rev. Nicodemus the Holy Mountainer called Palamas’s creations themselves lights (see § 7). We will identify the “eye of the soul” with the “eye of reason”, because reason is the highest part of the soul, and Palamas could directly identify the soul with spirit (τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἡμέτερον), which primarily means reason (νοῦς) - and reason as a stage of reason (see: 416B). The second part of the phrase also finds clear correspondence in the corpus of Palamas’s homilies. In the 34th homily of St. Gregory says that the radiance of the Light of the Lord (ἡ λαμττρότης ἐκείνη) becomes visible “... to all who, through zealous good deeds and pure prayer, continually strive towards God” 1197. But this is what a hesychast monk is, because he “...connects the mind with continuous prayer to God and thanks to it, becoming completely beside himself and surpassing himself, he unites with God” 1198. A specific example of a hesychast who went through this path of monastic activity in Sacred History is St. John the Baptist - and therefore we must “look at the life of John, to the best of our ability (κατὰ τὸ ἐφικτὸν)” (512D). The last clause is a formula of humility traditional in Christian literature, indicating the weakness of human nature 1199 - which does not free us from asceticism, if only we want to achieve salvation. For this, we must imitate the Forerunner to the best of our ability: “He wandered without shelter (ἄστεγος περιῆγεν); let us be content with this humble dwelling (τῇ μικρᾷ στέγῃ)....” (512D), that is, Palamas continues, “the little house given to everyone from the primate (τῷ παρὰ τοῦ προεστῶτος ... δεδομένῳ οἰκίακῳ)” (Ibid.). In other words, Palamas invites his monastic listeners to return to the way of life of the original Athonite monasticism, when there were no monastic monasteries yet, but only individual hermits and their hermitages 1200; Palamas himself, as is known, lived in such a monastery 1201. I also remember the famous: “καθίσας ἐν κελλίῳ ἡσύχῳ...” 1202 The desire to fulfill this prescription of the “Method” and thereby return to the lifestyle of the Athonite hesychast elders was, one might think, one of the main motivations for Palamas to give this kind of advice to his flock. But not only that. Palamas was deeply alien to the economic aspirations of part of the monasticism of his day. He never tires of denouncing the covetousness and desire for economic prosperity that prevails in some monasteries. At the same time, he again cites the example of St. John the Baptist. Based on the Gospel narrative (Matthew 3:1–12; Mark 1:1–8; Luke 3:1–9, 15–17; John 1:19–28) and quoting Matthew 3:4 1203, Palamas emphasizes the asceticism and abstinence of St. John in food and clothing (μονοχίτων τε ἦν – 512D). Non-covetousness (τὸ τῆς ἀκτημοσύνης ἀγαθὸν) (5120–513A) is highlighted by the saint as an essential feature of the appearance of the Forerunner. Of course, ascetic literature is full of examples of praising the virtue of non-covetousness and the urgent need for a monk to fight the passion of love of money; You can at least recall the “Interviews” of Rev. John Cassian. St. Anthony in his sermon, preserved by his Life, also emphasizes that demons are afraid of “... ἀκενόδοξον..." 1204 (“... meekness, silence, unmercenary, modesty..."). All these are virtues acquired at a distance from the world, in the desert, because the goal of monastic work is to acquire the vision of God and deification through removal from the world, and the one who has property “carries the world with him” (513B). Moreover, he defiles (κοινοῖ) the sacred place in which he is located, “even if he lived in these abodes, reflecting the heavenly host” 1205; such “does not allow (οὐκ ἀφίησιν) this [place] to be better than the world. And such one will be judged with all severity (πάντως) as having desecrated (κοινὸν ἡγησάμενος) what is holy with God (cf. John 2:15-16)” (513B). As is known, by the time of Palamas the monasteries had acquired enormous property, mainly land. Historians write specifically about the first half of the 14th century. both about the time of intensive growth of monastic property in both rural and urban areas (the latter determined the originality of the Byzantine version of feudalization) 1206; on the role of monasteries as producers of handicraft goods for the market 1207. These data are confirmed in the homily under consideration. “In what abundance,” exclaims Palamas, “we have [everything] necessary to be fed and clothed (πρὸς τροφὴν καὶ ἀμφίασιν) - [after all] we have barns (δοχεῖά τε) and storehouses full of bread and wine, bakeries and bakeries (ἀρτοποιεῖα τε καὶ ἀρτοκοπεῖα) and, simply speaking, everything necessary! (513A). The picture of the monastery economy created here in a few strokes is striking in its impressiveness. Undoubtedly, the homily can and should be considered as a full-fledged historical source on the history of that difficult time. However, Palama continues, we must be content with the common property of the monastery, so that, if possible, we do not fall too far from the non-covetousness and abstinence (ἐγκρατείας) of St. John. This one was fed from God - so we (i.e., monks) must feed from the treasuries of God (ἀπὸ τῶν τοῦ Θεοῦ ταμείων) (513A). This refers primarily to land ownership, which becomes obvious from a comparison of this place with 164B. After all, he ate the fruits of the earth - nuts (τοῖς ἀκροδρύοις) and wild honey (τῷ μελεάγρῳ ... ἢ μέλιτι ὀρείῳ) (512D). Forerunner. The theme of honey is further developed in the hagiographic tradition of Palamas himself, who, according to Patriarch Nile, “... in silence cultivated the honey of virtue even more diligently” 1208. And just like the Forerunner, he showed dispassion while in the body 1209. So, the Forerunner was in “tranquility and desert (ἠρεμίας καὶ ἐρημίας ἐκείνης)” (513B). This is a very important formula that sums up the consideration of the image as a whole (the word ἐκείνης indicates everything that was described earlier, especially in 512A and further). This formula has already been found in Palamas when describing the spiritual experience of the hesychast elders. In the 32nd homily, the teacher of silence says that one must flow to God with a pure mind, detached from everything base (404C); “...solitude and desert (μόνωσις καὶ ἐρημία) 1210 are very conducive to this, and the silence [obtained] at the same time (ἡ ... ἡσυχία) ... the blessing is desert, tranquility ( ἐρημία καὶ ἠρεμία ), prayer and solitude (μόνωσις)..." (Ibid.). Here the triad of mots-clefs - ἐρημία - ἠρεμία - ἡσυχία - directly “stitches” the ideological and figurative fabric of the sermon. It must be assumed that with the help of this kind of homeotelevt chains, Palamas achieved greater success in consolidating the ideas he preached in the minds of his flock, finding effective access to the minds and hearts of the audience. And when the general ground for the assimilation of hesychast ideas was prepared, individual examples of the hesychast way of life were sown into it - at the next, more specific and therefore deeper level. As if a living exemplum of the monastic path and feat appears in the studied homily of St. John the Baptist. In conclusion, Palamas examines the question of why the Forerunner came out of his solitude. The final part of the sermon is devoted to this - exactly half a paragraph (513BD). In the answer given by the saint, we highlight two points. Firstly, the Forerunner, as Palamas notes, was supposed to be the harbinger of the death of Christ, according to the paternal prophecy about the Forerunner 1211. Therefore, the life of the Forerunner was easily interpreted (by both the preacher and the listeners) as the highest example of μίμησις τοῦ Χρίστοῦ: it read the same paradigm of coming into the world, suffering and (on a new, spiritual level) resurrection - for eternal life. This μίμησις, following Christ, is the hidden path and commandment for a Christian, and especially for a hesychast monk 1212. Secondly, the Forerunner had to give saving knowledge (γνῶσιν σωτηρίας) even to those who were in hell, so that they too would flow (προσδράμωσι) to Christ and be rewarded with eternal life in Him (513CD). And therefore, the efforts of Palamas himself to give his listeners knowledge about the Forerunner are justified, all the more appropriate and justified in this case, since among his listeners, as we are convinced, monks predominated, for whom this knowledge had truly saving value. Let's take a look at everything said on these pages. It seems to me that the analyzed material allows us to draw the following main conclusions on the topic of research. 1. Homily dedicated to St. John the Baptist, was pronounced, apparently, before a monastic audience (in one of the monasteries in the vicinity of Thessalonica?). This idea is suggested by the abundance of motifs contained in it, one way or another connected with monasticism, its spirituality and way of life and characteristic of Sinai and late Athonite hesychasm, as well as criticism of clergy. However, similar accusatory notes are discernible in other sermons 1213, apparently addressed to a wider audience 1214. 2. Palamas's homilies (in particular, homilies No. 34, 35:40) are a valuable source on the history of late Athonite hesychast theology and methods of smart doing. 3. Turning to the homilies allows us to more clearly understand the anthropological views of Palamas himself and his place in the hesychast tradition. In our opinion (in general, following Meyendorff 1215), St. Gregory Palamas is the direct spiritual heir of St. John of Damascus, St. Gregory of Cyprus, Rev. Nikephoros the Solitary, author of the treatise “The Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention” and St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia. 4. Image of St. John the Baptist is interpreted in the 40th homily in a multifaceted manner and in a consistently hesychast spirit (as is the image of the Virgin Mary in the Discourse on the Entry of the Virgin Mary into the Church). The spiritual-genetic and typological connection of the Forerunner with the founding fathers of monasticism has been demonstrated (which is not controversial from the point of view of science) 1216. The connection between the Forerunner and the practice of continuous prayer and mental work, affirmed by Palamas, is proven by the preacher by analyzing the most important components of this work and “attributing” them to the Forerunner. But the image is also revealed from the point of view of its significance for the everyday life and economic behavior of the Agiorite monks: ascetic rules - precisely because of their universality - acquire the force of an immutable life and ontological law. Being so stereoscopic, the image of the Forerunner acquires in the homily the features of a universal spiritual example, exemplum (or monument, στήλη, to use the words of Palamas himself (508B)). It harmoniously combines ideological and figurative principles: the image is imbued with an idea, and the idea serves to reveal the image as fully and deeply as possible. 5. A detailed examination of all the topics of the homilies confirms the general position that seems important to us about their wealth and significance as a spiritual-historical (and, more broadly, historical) source (cf. data on monastic life in 513A). In the future, it would make sense to undertake diachronic studies of collections of homilies dedicated to the main theological subjects, the twelfth holidays, etc. It is advisable to study such arrays of homilies using the extensive context of the monuments of the eras under consideration, as well as new methods of analysis 1217. Then the works of the homiletics genre will begin to reveal their secrets to the thoughtful researcher. Meyendorff I. Life and works... S. 325, 326; Meyetidorff J. Byzantine theology. P. 78; etc. Wed. also the indicated works of A. Radovich, I. Vlahos, F. Zisis and other representatives of Greek-Serbian Orthodox theology (which show a tendency to increase from year to year). On the use of the word “cosmos” in homilies, see: Ch. 1.2.1 As a standard expression of this thought, we point to the work of St. Gregory of Nyssa: St. Gregory of Nyssa. About the structure of man / Transl. V. M. Lurie, ed. A. L. Berlinsky. SPb., 2 2000. Ch. 2. pp. 20–21. That is, the creation of man was preceded by a special Council of the Holy Trinity on this topic. See also: St. Maximus the Confessor. A Word on Ascetic Life // Works of St. Maximus the Confessor. T. 1. P. 75. This idea was, of course, the common property of patristic literature (we can now ignore some nuances in the field of angelology). Ignace aux Éphésiens. II. 2 // Ignace d'Antioche; Polycarpe de Smyrne. Letters; Martyre de Polycarpe / Texte grec, intr., trad, et notes par P. T. Camelot, O. P. Paris, 1998. P. 58. (SC, 10 bis). This term has been used in patristics, at least since St. Justin Martyr (2nd Apol. 7. 3–9). (See: A.I. Sidorov. Patrolology course. P. 184). Another term with a similar meaning - αὐθαίρετος - did not play any noticeable role in the theology of St. Gregory Palamas of the late period; in any case, it does not appear in homilies in conceptually meaningful contexts. Literally - “...creating it, in His own image and likeness he creates it ὁμοίωσιν )....” It is impossible to literally convey this pleonasm in Russian. Wed. in the 44th chapter of the “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters”: God “...created rational nature free and autocratic (ἐλεύθερόν τε καὶ αὐτεξούσιον) ...” (Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 134.44.13). This freedom was manifested precisely in the fact that man was given power over all earthly creatures (ἄρχειν τέτακται)” (Ibid. P. 134.44.9). As R. E. Sinkevich notes, the idea of ​​the image of God in man as the ability to rule over earthly creatures is characteristic of Antiochian theology and, in particular, of St. John Chrysostom (Sinkewicz R. E. Note 47 // Ibid. R. 135). It is hardly worth reminding that for medieval authors, absolute goodness and beauty are inextricably linked in God, Who is absolute Good and absolute Beauty (as well as Truth, Light and much more). See, for example: S. Dionysii Araeopagitae De divinis nominibus // PG. 3. 596AC, 640B, 645A, etc. Blessed Augustine expressed this idea already in one of his first works - “Against the Academicians” (I. 9; III. 1) (Mayorov G. G. Formation of medieval philosophy. Latin Patristics. M., 1979. P. 236; in a more general perspective, see: Fokin A. R. Augustine the Blessed // Orthodox Encyclopedia. M., 2000. T. 1. P. 99–100, etc.). In the original pleonasm: ... ἑαυτὸν ἡμῖν παρέχει προτιθεὶς εἰς εὐποιΐας ὑπόδειγμα. See also: Zubov V. P. Russian preachers. Essays on the history of Russian preaching. M., 2001. P. 11. Ch. XVI (PG. 45. 177D–180A; Russian translation. V. M. Lurie: St. Gregory of Nyssa. On the structure of man. P. 65; 1st ed.: p. 50). Vasily (Krivoshein), archimandrite. The ascetic and theological teaching of St. Gregory Palamas // Him. Theological works 1952–1983 Articles, reports, translations. Nizhny Novgorod, 1996. pp. 205–206; Lossky Vl. N. Apophase and Trinitarian theology // BT. 1975. T. 14; His same. Theology of the image // Ibid. pp. 118–119, 237 (in general); His own. Theological concept of human personality // Ibid.; His own. “The Vision of God” in Byzantine theology // Ibid. 1972. T. 8; His same. Essay on the mystical theology of the Eastern Church // Mystical theology. Kyiv, 1991; Meyendorff I.F., prot. Introduction to Patristic Theology: (Lecture Notes) / Trans. from English L. Volokhonskaya. Vilnius 2, 1992; Meyendorff I.F., protopresbyter. Life and works... P. 166 ff.; His same. About Byzantine hesychasm and its role in the cultural and historical development of Eastern Europe in the 14th century. // TODRL. 1974. T. 29 (now see: Him. History of the Church and Eastern Christian mysticism. M., 2000. Special p. 566); His same. St. Gregory Palamas. Its place in the Tradition of the Church and modern theology // Orthodoxy in the modern world. M., 1997. P. 160; His same. Jesus Christ in Eastern Orthodox theology. pp. 227–231; Meyendorff J. Byzantine Hesychasm: Historical, Theological, and Social Problems. L.: VR, 1974; Idem. Byzantine Theology; Idem. Introduction...Pt. 2; Idem. Saint Grégoire Palamas et la mystique orthodoxe. P. 96 et suiv.; Idem. Palamas (Grégoire). Col. 92–94; Idem. Society and Culture in the Fourteenth Century. Religious problems. P. 51–66; Idem. Spiritual Trends in Byzantium...; Florovsky G. St. Gregory Palamas and the Tradition of the Fathers // Idem. Bible, Church, Tradition: An Eastern Orthodox View. Belmont, 1972 (Russian translation: Florovsky G., prot. Dogma and history. Special pp. 386–393); Ruzhitsky K., prot. On the 600th anniversary of the death of St. Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of Thessaloniki // ZhMP. 1959. No. 12. P. 39; Prokhorov G. M. Hesychasm and social thought in Eastern Europe in the 14th century. // TODRL. 1968. T. 23. P. 80–106; His own. Cultural originality of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo // Ibid. 1979. T. 34 (see the republication of these two articles of epoch-making significance in the book: His. Rus' and Byzantium in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. St. Petersburg, 2000. T. 2); His same. Literary and social movement in the Byzantine-Slavic world in the 14th century // Readings on ancient Russian literature. Yerevan, 1980; Its ok. Works of David Disipat in Old Russian Literature // TODRL. 1979. T. 33; Halleux A. de. Palamisme et scolastique // Revue Théologique de Louvain. 1973. Vol. 4. P. 417, 427; Clément O. Byzance et le Christianisme. Paris, 1964. P. 37–38; Schultze B. Grundfragen destheologischen Palamismus // Ostkirchliche Studien. 1975. Bd. 24. S. 110,120; Hussey J.M. The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire. Oxford, 1991. P. 260 (about hesychasm in general); Mantzarides G. I. The Deification of Man; Idem. Ορθόδοξος πνενματικότης ...; Sinkewicz R. E. The Concept of Spiritual Perception... P. 390; Idem. The Doctrine of the Knowledge of God...; Ράντοβιτς A., ιερομ. Το μυστήριον της Αγίας Τριάδος ... Σελ. 8, 32; Βλάχος Ι., αρχιμ. Ο άγιος Γρηγόριος ο Παλαμάς ... Σελ . 305,322,325,376–377,382; Lurie V. M. Publications from the Bose Monastery on the history of the hesychast tradition among the Greeks and Slavs. 1–2 // BB. 1997. T. 57 (82). P. 314; etc. Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 124. 38. 5–10. This aspect of the views of St. Gregory’s views on the body and the problem of corporeality have been repeatedly considered in the scientific literature. Ibid. R. 124.38.14–17. As one of the distant parallels to the teaching of Palamas, one can recall the views of the anonymous author of the Second Epistle of St. Clement of Rome" (approximately mid-2nd century), according to which the flesh plays the most important role in the Economy of salvation; The author of the epistle develops his biblical anthropology (a term by I. Meyendorff) in polemics with the Gnostics. See: Sidorov A. I. Patrol course. pp. 77–80; Of the newest works devoted to the relationship between gnosis and the Catholic Church, we can (albeit with caution) recommend the book by A. L. Khosroev: Khosroev A. From the history of early Christianity in Egypt: Based on the material of the Coptic library from Nag Hammadi. M., 1997. P. 338. Note. 696 (to the translation from the Greek of the Gnostic “Apocalypse of Peter”; for the corresponding place, see p. 322). Of course, the entire vast literature on the issues of “Gnosis and Christianity” remains beyond the scope of this work. Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 124.38.9–11. Conversations... 4.3. P. 201. Attention to this place was drawn by R. E. Sinkevich, who noted the closest parallels in the modern Palamas of theology - in Sts. Gregory of Sinai and Theoliptus of Philadelphia. See: Sinkewicz R. E. St. Gregory Palamas and the Doctrine of God's Image in Man According to the "Capita 150". Reprinted from "Theologia". Athens, 1986. P. 12(862) – 19(869) and Note 22 (p. 12); Theoleptos of Philadelphia. The Monastic Discourses. MD 1. P. 102. 25. 297–298; Rev. Gregory Sinait. Creations / Transl. from Greek, approx. and after. Ep. Veniamina (Milova). M., 1999. P. 17. In Theophan, this term is used to describe the future union of God with His saints during deification (in presenting this point of soteriology, he explicitly relies on the teaching of St. Maximus the Confessor, and less explicitly on the subsequent hesychast tradition, as well as on the tradition of homiletics for the Feast of the Transfiguration, about which see elsewhere). See: Θεοφάνου Νίκαιας Λόγος δεύτερος ... // Σωτηρόπουλος Χ. Γ. Νηπτικοί και πατέρες των μέσωνχρόνων. Αθήνα, 1996. Σελ. 214, 222. 966. Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 124.38.12–14. See, in particular: Sidorov A.I. Patrol course. S. 215, 239 (about Theophilus). Compare, for example, Kern's summary: Cyprian (Kern), archim. Anthropology... P. 355. See: Barmine A. Une source méconnue des “Dialogues” de Nicétas de Maronée // RÉB, 2000. Vol. 58. P. 231–243, hic p. 234 (chronology), 240 (quote from “The Fourth Word...” by Nikita Maroneisky). See: Lurie V. M. The relationship of the Filioque problem with the doctrine of deification among Orthodox theologians after St. Photius // Proceedings of the Higher Religious and Philosophical School. St. Petersburg, 1992. pp. 1–19; Lur'e V. L'attitude de S. Marcd'Ephèse aux débats sur la procession du Saint-Esprit à Florence. Ses fondements dans la théologie post-palamite // Annuarium Historiae Conciliorum. 1989 [1991]. Bd. 21. P. 317–333. Meyendorff I. F. Florence Cathedral: reasons for historical failure // VV. 1991. T. 52. P. 90; Lur'e V. L'attitude...; Wed more generally: Kuhlmann J. Die Taten des einfachen Gottes. Eine römisch-katholische Stellungnahme zum Palamismus. Würzburg, 1968. (Das östliche Christentum. N. F. Heft 21). S. 121, 124–125. Per. archim. Ambrose (Pogodin) cit. according to his book: Saint Mark of Ephesus and the Union of Florence. M., 1994. P. 275. Note. 47. See quotes below. Wed: John Meyendorff, protopresbyter. History of the Church and Eastern Christian mysticism. P. 566. Papadakis A. Gennadius II and Mehmet the Conqueror // Byz. 1972. Vol. 42. P. 101 (text in English translation), p. 95 (dating and writing conditions). Similar images could have been familiar to a wider reading public since the 10th century. - based on “The Life of Andrei the Fool” (The Life of Andrei the Fool / Introductory article, translated from Greek and commentary by E. V. Zheltova. St. Petersburg, 2001. (Byzantine Library). Ch. 13. P. 37 (Russian translation), 147 (Greek text). This chapter describes the dispute between the wise men and Epiphanius (one from the two main characters of the “Life”) about the nature of the Holy Trinity. In the publication of the works of St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia (see footnotes below). See: Conversations... Part 3. P. 244. Here is also an indication of the Aristotelian origins of the term. Of course, Palamas is not alone in this naming of the mind as the highest part of human nature. We can find similar images in the Byzantine and, for example, in the ancient Russian spiritual tradition. Thus, Abbot Moses Vydubitsky, in his panegyric speech to the Grand Duke Rurik Rostislavich, delivered on September 24, 1199, compares the prince’s soul, adorned with right faith and good deeds, with the “small sky.” At the same time, he quotes one of the teaching messages of Methodius of Olympus (III century), the Greek original of which has not survived. See: Podskalski G. Christianity and theological literature in Kievan Rus (988–1237). St. Petersburg, 1996. P. 367. Διπλοῦς ἐστιν ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ὁ ἐκτὸς, τὸ σῶμα λέγω, καὶ ὁ ἐντὸς ἡμῶν ἄνθρωπος, ἡ ψυχὴ δηλονότι. See a brief overview of the history of Orthodox dichotomism (mainly based on the works of St. Gregory the Theologian, Maximus the Confessor and Simeon the New Theologian) in the book: Hilarion (Alfeev), Hierom. Venerable Simeon the New Theologian and Orthodox Tradition. M., 1998. S. 287–296; Wed the entire Chapter VII “Anthropology of St. Simeon in the light of the patriotic tradition” (pp. 285–310). See also: Nemesius of Emesa. About human nature. Ch. 1. P. 5 et seq. (a review of various theories of ancient and early Christian origin; a kind of laboratory for self-determination of Byzantine patriotic thought). ... μόνη λογικὴ ψυχή ἐστιν ἡ ἀνθρώπινη ... (Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 88.4.11; cf.: PG. 150.1120C; PG. 151.77A; etc.). ... Since subsequent studies of this and other aspects of Palamas’ anthropology rely to one degree or another on Meyendorff, we will allow ourselves to refer only to: Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 237; His same. St. Gregory Palamas. Its place in the Tradition of the Church and modern theology // Orthodoxy in the modern world. M., 1997. P. 163; Meyendorff J. Humanisme nominaliste et mystique chrétienne à Byzance au XIV e siècle // Byzantine Hesychasm. P. 912; Leeson J. La divinisation selon Grégoire Palamas: Un sommet de la théologie orthodoxe // Irénikon. 1994. Vol. 17. Nr. 1. P. 68–69; Sinkewicz R. E. The Concept of Spiritual Perception in Gregory Palamas’ First Triad... P. 387–389; Ράντοβιτς Α. Το μυστήριον ... Σελ . 49. See: Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 242–244; Meyendorff J. A Study of Gregory Palamas. N.Y., 1998. P. 177. It is enough to refer to the excellent review of the archbishop. Vasily (Krivosheina): Orthodox spiritual tradition // His own. Theological works. pp. 8–30; see also: Hausherr I. La Méthode... P. 134–142; Boularatid E., S. J. Grégoire Palamas et la "Defense des saints hésychastes". A propos d’un livre recent [Meyendorff 1959] // Revue d’ascétique et de mystique. 1960. 36th année. No. 141. P. 233, 235, 236; etc. Hesychii Presbyteri Ad Theodulum sermo... de Temperantia et Virtute... // PG. 93. 1541 A. 190. This is the creation of St. Hesychia reveals many similarities with the “Ladder” by St. John of Sinai. Wed. 1511A. 99:... However, already in the so-called “Second Epistle of St. Clement of Rome" (approximately the middle of the 2nd century) one of the main goals of asceticism is called τηρεῖν τὴν σάρκα ἁγνὴν (“to preserve the virginity (purity) of the flesh”; Sidorov translates it as “to keep (keep) the flesh pure”). See: Sidorov A. I. Patrol course. pp. 80, 75 (dating). A comparison of this position with the views of Palamas shows that St. Gregory fully adhered to the ascetic tradition of the Fathers, which, in turn, was rooted in the theology of the New Testament and religious movements in Judaism of the late antique era (about the latter, see, in particular: Lurie V. M. The Calling of Abraham. P. 10 et seq.). This is a very important place, showing that St. Gregory Palamas did not accept the theory of traditionism. Wed. a paradox formulated by a modern philosopher: “The most remarkable and, to a certain extent, truly paradoxical thing about the space of contemplation is that it is space in consciousness, while consciousness itself with all its contents is non-spatial... in representations there is space: what is represented in them is represented as spatial extension... This is an amazing adaptation of consciousness to the external world; otherwise the world could not be presented as external” (Hartmann N. Philosophie der Natur. Berlin, 1950. S. 15; quoted from: Toporov V.N. Myth. Ritual. Symbol. Image. Studies in the field of mythopoetic. M., 1995. P. 446). Rus. translation see: Plato. Essays. M., 1994. T. 2. P. 154. “For addition is the cause of division (σύνθεσις γὰρ ἀρχὴ διαστάσεως)..." (PG. 36. 365C) is a formula that can be considered a standard... Plat. Polit. IV 434 p7–444 a9; VIII. 550b. See links to sources and literature in: Podskalski G. Christianity and theological literature in Kievan Rus... P. 245 and approx. 653. Rev. Callistus Angelicud in the second half of the 14th century. also talks about τὸ γε τριμερὶς αὐτῆς [sc. τῆς ψυχῆς ]. See: Callistos Angelicoudès. Quatre traités hésychastes inédits / Intr., texte crit., trad, et notes par Archim. S. Koutsas... // Θεολογία. 1997. T. 68. Τεύχη 1–2. Σελ. 242 καὶ σελ . 243. Υπόσ. 16. To summarize, it can be said that this doctrine has found universal support among ecclesiastical writers over a period of a thousand years; it became an integral part of the ascetic-anthropological teaching of the late Byzantine hesychasts. Aristotle. Essays. M., 1984. T. 4. P. 305. Makarov D. I. The problem of man in the worldview of Gregory Palamas // ADSV. 1997. T. 28. P. 91. Note. 48. Wed. in Theophanes of Nicaea: Ὁ μὲν γὰρ νοῦς, αὐτεξούσιος ὤν ... (Quoted from: Polemis I. D. Theophanes of Nicaea. His Life and Works. Wien, 1996. (WBS, 20). P. 103). The tone of the phrase leaves no doubt that for Feofan this position was a commonplace of tradition. Wed. also: τὸν τῆς ψυχῆς ὀφθαλμὸν (296A) - in a very important place that we have yet to talk about. Of course, this image was known to Byzantine literature long before Palamas. Wed. from Constantine Porphyrogenitus: Ἐπίστησον, υἱέ, διανοίας ὄμμα τῆς σῆς λόγοις ἐμοῖς ... (Translated by G. G. Litavrina - “Turn, son, the eyes of your mind to my words...”). Quote by: Konstantin Porphyrogenitus. About managing an empire. Text. Translation. Commentary / Ed. G. G. Litavrina and A. P. Novoseltseva. M., 1989. P. 54 (text), 55 (translation). (Ancient sources on the history of the peoples of the USSR). Saints have such a spiritual eye. Wed. in “The Life of Andrei the Fool” (chapter 19): “...blessed Andrei looked with the spiritual eye of his mind (τῷ νοερῳ ὄμματι τῆς διανοίας) at the actions of each of them...” (The Life of Andrei the Fool. P. 44 (Russian translation), 157 (Greek text)). Moreover, from the further story it is clear that spiritual eyes and ears are opened in the process of achievement (Ibid. p. 45; cf. pp. 54, 60, 62, 65, esp. 88 and 116). Isn’t that what we read in the New Testament narrative: αὐτῶν δὲ διηνοίχθησαν οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ ... (Luke 24:31)? In the subsequent patristic tradition, this term is used very often. Here are just a few examples: S. Theoph. Ant. Ad Autolycum I. 2 (this aspect of his theology is emphasized by A.I. Sidorov: Course of Patrolology. pp. 235–236; we, for our part, have already noted the closeness of St. Theophilus to Palamas in the field of cosmology); S.Greg. Nyss. In Cant. Cant. Praef. Ad Olymp.; Wed from such a late eclecticist as Psellus: “... only those can contemplate Him (i.e. God. - D. M.) ... whose spiritual gaze is cleared in the soul” (Teachings of Michael Psellus in the field of dogmatic theology / Translated by Archim. Ambrose (Pogodin) // Mikhail Psellus. Theological Works. P. 85). In general, we should, firstly, emphasize the need in each specific case to distinguish which eye we are talking about: natural (as in Constantine Porphyrogenitus) or spiritual, revealed by grace (as in the Gospel and Lives). Secondly, it should be noted that this concept (and the reality behind it) lies at the basis of Christian culture: without it, this culture itself would not have been born. For culture, at its core, is nothing more than a derivative of the contemplation of that highest Reality, which cannot be perceived or felt without the opening of spiritual eyes. See: Shpidlik F. Spiritual tradition of Eastern Christianity. pp. 279–308; Evagrius’ definition of thought is given in Greek on p. 281. ... διπλᾶς, μᾶλλον δὲ καὶ πολλαπλᾶς ἡμῖν ἔδωκε τὰς γνωστικὰς δυνάμεις, νοῦν τε καὶ αἴσθησιν, καὶ τὰ μεταξὺ χαρισάμενος, διὰ τοῦτο καὶ τῶν εἰς γνῶσιν καὶ πρᾶξιν προκειμένων ἡμῖν διπλοῦν τε καὶ πολλαπλοῦν πεποίηκεν ἕκαστον. This verb especially clearly highlights the idea of ​​active comprehension of reality by the subject. We find a very similar text in the 36th paragraph of the Discourse on the Entry of the Mother of God into the Holy of Holies (several discrepancies between this homily and the 26th we are examining are noted in the Economy edition: Σελ. 173: καὶ ὑποσήματα). Conversations... Part 3. P. 131. Approx. 114. “The preceding two “Words” ... were written by us with only one purpose: to show how in man, as if in some kind of imprint and image, not only are the two essences of Christ delineated, but also pre-imprinted, as if in some vague image, two impeccable actions and two wills [of Him]” (Reverend Anastasius of Sinaite. Three words about the structure of man in the image and likeness To God. The Third Word, or the Word against the Monothelites / Translated by A. I. Sidorov // Alpha and Omega 1999. No. 20; see also pp. PG. 151. 727A, 740BC (St. Maximus the Confessor); 743AB (St. Anastasius). Aristotelian concept; Economy (σελ. 175: Ὑπόσ. α' (p. 175: note 1)) indicates its definition by Nikephoros Blemmydes in the Concise Logic, as well as by St. Maximus the Confessor. Wed: St. Maximus the Confessor. Questions and answers to Thalassia. Prologue...etc. // Creations of St. Maximus the Confessor. T. 2. P. 16 et seq. On the spiritual feeling in the teachings of Palamas, see the work of R. E. Sinkevich: Sirikewicz R. E. The Concept of Spiritual Perception... Perhaps some analogy (albeit distant) can also be made by the concepts of phlogiston and ether (as a special “primary medium”) in chemistry and physics of the 18th–19th centuries. - ideas that ultimately go back to the same Aristoteligm, which was largely guided by Palamas? PG. 142. 717–720. For an initial acquaintance with the teachings of Vlemmid, you can refer to the book: Bychkov V.V. A short history of Byzantine aesthetics. Kiev, 1991. P. 347. However, Bychkov lacks a consistent theological analysis of the analyzed judgments. Losev A. F. Ancient space and modern science // His. Genesis – Name – Cosmos. M., 1993. pp. 467–468. Aristotle. Essays. M., 1984. T. 4. P. 197–198; see also: Braginskaya N. V. Comment 22 // Ibid. P. 732. ... θεοφιλεῖ διανοίᾳ πρὸς αὐτόν [sc. τὸν Θεὸν ] αἴρειντε καὶ ἃνάγειν ... The further presentation is based on: Makarov D. I. On the origins of the physiological views of St. Gregory Palamas (based on the Twelfth Homily): on the problem of the existence of the Galenic tradition in late Byzantium // Eagle of the Sixth Legion. Ekaterinburg, 2000. Issue. 2. pp. 46–48. Nemesius of Emesa. About human nature. Ch. 2.123. P. 38. Wed: Triads. 2.2.29–30. (See: ΓΠΣ–1. Σελ . 535.29.6–536.30.12). Published in Latin translation: PG. 127. Claudii Galeni Methodi Medendi Liber XIII // Opera omnia / Ed. D. S. Gottlob. Lipsiae, 1825. Vol. X. P. 929. St. Gregory of Nyssa. About the structure of man. P. 47. See in general: p. 42–48, 60–62 and comments by V. M. Lurie. De oratione et puritate cordis capita tria // PG. 150. 1120BC: Νοῦς λέγεται καὶ ἐνέργεια τοῦ νοῦ ... Claudii Galeni Liber de ossibus ad tirones // Opera omnia. Lipsiae, 1821. V. II. P. 739. Sinkewicz R. E. The Date of “Capita 150” // Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 51. Temkin O. Byzantine Medicine: Tradition and Empiricism // DOP. 1962. Vol. 16. P. 97. To indicate only one source: Venerable John Cassian the Roman. Interviews of Egyptian ascetics // Scriptures / Trans. from lat. Ep. Petra. M., 1892 (rep.: Holy Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, 1993). pp. 452,520,558,625. Wed: Life of Andrei Yurodivy. pp. 56, 65; etc. There is no doubt that this idea was one of the fundamental ones for the theology of monastic work. We will return to it later – in the context of soteriology. Right there. P. 408. (Thirteenth interview. Abba Heremon... about the protection of God). Summa theol. Q. 1.23.3c. (Sancii Thomae Aquinatis doctoris angelici Opera omnia... Romae, 1888. T. 4). Quote translated by S. S. Averintsev according to: Borgosh Yu. Thomas Aquinas. M., 1966. P. 179. The second translation option is “a rule that does not allow deviations.” Palamas almost never designates will as θέλησις, but prefers to use this word (cf. already the First Homily; etc. - see below). In this he continues the line of St. Maxima. An extremely rare designation in Palamas' homilies. The usual name is “clever and incipiently evil serpent” (76C; 545A; etc.). Adv. Haer. V. 27. 2: χωρισμὸς δὲ τοῦ Θεοῦ θάνατος. See: Florovsky Georgy, archpriest. About the Death of the Cross // Dogma and History. P. 191 and approx. 13. In more detail, including examples from St. Gregory Palamas: Zarin S. M. Asceticism according to Orthodox Christian teaching. M., 1996. pp. 25–26 (and notes 87–96), 153. The same definition of the death of the soul as ὁ ἀπὸ Θεοῦ ταύτης χωρισμὸς see: Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 126.39.8–9. Proslogion. 1. 16–20. Quote in Russian lane I. V. Kupreeva: Anselm of Canterbury. Essays. M., 1995. P. 126. Venerable Simeon the New Theologian. Word thirty-fifth // Creations. T. 1. P. 295 On the theme of death in Palamas, see: Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 172–178 (Meyendorff J. Introduction... P. 179–185; Idem. A Study of Gregory Palamas. P. 121–126). Whereas salvation requires imitating Christ. See also: Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 177. This aspect of Palamas’ teaching seems to be the subject of a monograph known to us only from S. Khoruzhy’s bibliographic summary: Κεσελόπουλος Α. Γ. Πάθη και αρετές στη διδασκαλία του Αγίου Γρηγορίου του Παλαμά. Αθήνα, 1982. 247 σελ. However, we have not seen any references to it and find it difficult to say anything about its existence. In any case, the material of the homilies, compiled into a system, is indicative in itself. That is, Christianity emanating from the Spirit of God. Wed. the same designation in 76C (expanded version), 104A, 145A, 396C, 413B, etc. Cf. no less curious designation in 17D: ὁ νοητὸς τῆς κακίας προστάτης (“spiritual [or “smart”] leader of evil”). A characteristic way for a preacher to address an audience. Wed. mention of "innate impulses towards evil" (τὰς... ἐμφύτους πρὸς κακίαν ὁρμὰς) (117Α). Here Palamas sets out the centuries-old experience of Christian ascetics (cf. the classic diagram of eight basic thoughts recorded by Evagrius), who teach that those thoughts that give rise to visible passions come first and entail those that give rise to invisible ones. “The Sermon on Spiritual Work, or Monk,” where Evagrius sets out his observations and teachings, is available in the translation by A. I. Sidorov: The Works of Abba Evagrius. M., 1994. P. 96 et seq. διαιρεῖται γὰρ ὥσπερ ἡ μία φύσις τῇ διαφόρῳ γνώμῃ, οὗτος ὁ εἶς κόσμος τῇ διαφόρῳ χρησει· According to Palamas, incontinence of the womb gives rise to a passionate state (γεννήτρια τῆς ἐμπαθείας ἐστὶν) (11 FOR). Thus, gluttony turns out to be the first of the sins, which is consistent with the classical scheme of Evagrius (see note 99). One of the sins mentioned since ancient times. Already St. Ignatius the God-Bearer wrote to the Romans: “I do not want you to please people (ἀνθρωπαρεσκῆσαι) - but to please God, just as you please” (Ignace aux Romains // Ignace d’Antioche. Polycarpe de Smyrne. Lettres. Martyre de Polycarpe. P. 108. II. This sin is treated differently. In the biblical tradition, which Palamas strictly follows, he is identified with the Antichrist: The Apostle Paul calls the Antichrist “the man of lawlessness, the son of destruction (ὁ ἄνθρωπος τῆς ἀνομίας, ὁ υἱὸς τῆς ἀπώλειας)" (2 Sol. 2:3). St. Gregory, slightly altering these words, speaks of “the man of sin, the son of iniquity, that is, the Antichrist ( ἀνομίας, τοῦ Ἀντίχριστου λέγω)" (125C); It is noteworthy that lawlessness is identified with sin in general, with sin as such. We find the same approach in the second case: “for every sin is lawlessness (πᾶσα γὰρ ἁμαρτία ἀνομία ἐστί)” (345D); here we find the following explanation: at the end of time, the Lord will send His angels to gather and cast into the fiery furnace “... those who create lawlessness (τὴν ἀνομίαν), that is, heretics” (Ibid.) (about heretics, see No. 7). Thus, both heresies and - in particular - lawlessness represent, along with wickedness (No. 31), a higher taxonomic unit in the hamartology of St. Gregory Palamas, thought of as sin par excellence. Macremvolite highlights τὸ ἀπάνθρωπον, a word with a similar meaning (Κουρούσης Στ. Αἱἀντιλήψεις ... Σελ. 239. 76–77). Rev. teaches about this passion in the context of smart doing. Simeon the Studite: “If we neglect the constant confession of our thoughts [to the spiritual father] (της σννεχονς τών λογισμών εξαγορεύσεως), then we will fall into more rude ( παχύτερα) passions; and being ashamed, again, to open them (ψανερώσαι), we will slide into the abyss of despair (then τής άπογνώσεωςβόραθρον)" (Syméon le Studite. Discours ascétique / Intr., texte critique et notes par H. Alfeyev. Paris, 2001. P. 116. 19–22 (SC, 460). Thus, the passion of despair is far from accidental, and it stems from the monk’s carelessness about his spiritual work; in the context of Palamas's homily, the word has a more general character, being included in the narrative about the paths of the spiritual life of every Christian. In 409A it is described by Palamas as one of the temptations. The term is extremely polysemantic and is thought of as sin par excellence. 549C says that the evil of the evil one lies in sin and unbelief (ἡ αμαρτια καὶ ἡ ἀσέβεια). In such a context, unbelief can mean a dominant passion from which a variety of evil actions flow; one of the most important, fundamental manifestations of human depravity, giving rise to many more private sins (see: 373C; cf. what was said above about lawlessness (No. 18)). In general, this word allows for various translation options: “ungodly lifestyle,” etc. Its meaning is partly discussed in the last paragraph of this chapter. Writing a general study on the evolution of the meaning of this term among the Byzantine Fathers would be highly desirable. Rom.1:26. This expression is better translated as “passions of wickedness”; Thus, dishonor, as well as unbelief and lawlessness, acts as a kind of general predicate in relation to more specific passions, representing a taxonomic unit of a higher order in Palamas’ hamartology. Included conditionally - after all, this is a sinful act, and not passion (in the strict sense of the word). But the fact is that, according to Palamas, sinful acts are inextricably linked with their corresponding passions (cf. No. 7 and 345D). The word was already known to Clement of Alexandria. See: Zarin S. M. Asceticism... P. 266. Note. 23. Included (as well as the next No. 43) as an example of an evil act directly caused by a passionate state. Another example of the inseparability of passion and the action caused by it. An excellent example of the use of apophatic language in hamartology!. This is the most important passage for understanding Palamas's teaching on sin: ... ται, λαβόντα χώραν υπό τής τοϋ Θεοϋ δικαίας έγκαταλείψεως (101B). Thus, the fight against heresies, which formed such a significant part of Palamas’ life work, is raised to the level of the most important anthropological task. Also in the form of τό έμπαθές and adjectives. Obviously, this passion is a subtype of the previous one. We include this word here because in a number of cases (which are taken into account here) it is used by Palamas as a generalized name for a certain group of passions (see the explanations after the table for more information). But cf. in 105A the use of the same word as a designation of one of the principles of the soul. Thus, it is clear that this passionate act is mentioned by Palamas in the context of a polemic against the luxury and customs of the nobility. One can recall early Christian parallels - Tertullian. St. Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom... See, for example: Tertullian. About women's attire / Transl. E. Yunets // His own. Selected Works / Ed. A. A. Stolyarova. M., 1994. pp. 345–357. Here are the places where this word is used in the narrower meaning of a specific passion, and not one of the principles of the soul. The criterion of righteousness for Palamas is the proportionate use of something (τήν σύμμετρον χρήσιν – 160D); the rest is regarded as a deviation from the norm. It is described as one of the worst vices (in full agreement with the patristic tradition: as is known, in Evagrius vanity is the seventh of the eight main evil thoughts, “second” to pride). Thus, in the Fortieth Homily, describing the dance of Herodias, Palamas says: “This whole feast itself (the ανμπόσιον) was started by vanity (κενοδοξία συνεκρότησεν)” (505B). A very dangerous passion. In 208C it is directly associated with the activities of the devil. In the Christian sense - that is, to one's neighbor. Subtype of the next passion (No. 92). Other authors, for example, Makremvolit, emphasize this same passion. See: Κονρονσης Στ. Αίάντιλήφεις ... Σελ. 239.76:... τὸ πρὸς άλλήλουςμίσος ... See No. 56 and its note. Metaphorical designation No. 68. In the first case, it is thought of as temptation. In the second - as a classification sign and at the same time a component of other passions (see more details at the end of the paragraph). On the difference between ὀργή ϑυμός, see: Zarin S. M. Asceticism... P. 274. Note. 57. Here is also an analysis of synonyms (κότος, etc.). The interpretation of this passion was given by St. Maxim the Confessor. For a primary summary of information on this matter, see: Ibid. pp. 240–241. Of course, this does not mean nobility as such (Palama himself came from a noble family), but a partial attitude towards it, associated with such passions as No. 86, 100, 135 and related ones. At the same time, it is not wealth as such that is condemned (cf.: No. 107), but excessive attachment to it: ... (49Β). The place is very important - here Saint Gregory Palamas warns that “... if anyone [of you] sees that his thought is drawn to wealth and much acquisition, let him know that this thought is carnal (σαρκικός ἐστι) ...” (140D). Wed. also "prodigal chants" (τὰ ἄσματα τὰ πορνικὰ) (417D). While songs in themselves do not relate to passions and are generated by the passion of fornication, Palamas gives a more independent meaning to conversations. What St. Gregory includes various forms of verbal excesses in the general description of passions, giving us reason to include these excesses in our classification. But this is still not passion in its pure form, but a sinful action already occurring as a result of passion. In our inconsistency we are only trying to follow the train of thought of St. Gregory Palamas, reproducing it as accurately as possible. To understand this meaning of the word τρυφή, it is very important to turn to 417CD: “So, the cause of those bad passions that are associated with the sense of taste is not food (ἡ τροφή), but immoderation in it, that is, overeating.” Here Palama brilliantly plays with the opposition τροφή - τρυφή. This criminal act has long been widespread in Byzantium, as evidenced by, for example, an episode from “The Life of Andrei Yurodivy” (Life of Andrei Yurodivy. pp. 60–62 (Russian translation), 181–184 (Greek text)). This sin is placed in close proximity to the love of money (No. 142) See: 420AB. “The lover of souls... by the fact that he [above all] values ​​this temporary (i.e., transitory - D.M.) age, what is in it, will cause [enormous] damage to his soul, depriving it of true life...” As we see, Palamas associates this sin with the fundamental Christian opposition between the earthly city and the Heavenly City - and the life paths of man in accordance with them. The Third Chapter of the work will be devoted to an additional and comprehensive substantiation of this thesis. See very valuable article: Hisamatsu E. Zur Anthropologie des Gregorios Sinaites // XB. 1999.T. 1 (7). pp. 58–98. See more generally about the three possible states (κατὰ, παρὰ καὶ ὑπὲρ φύσιν) from many works, for example the following: Lavriotes M., archim. The Revelation of God: The crucial difference in Eastern–Western theology // Verbum. Vol. 3. Byzantine theology and traditions of religious and philosophical thought in Russia. St. Petersburg, 2000. P. 164. For this oral communication I sincerely thank D. A. Pospelov (Moscow-Athos). μήτε ἀνώδυνά ἐστι, μήτε ἐνήδονα. Many of them are identical with “immoderate passions of the flesh” (337D) - cf. at least: No. 11, 34, 41, 54, 94, 104, 117, 122. Wed. interpretation of the image of the calf by St. Maximus the Confessor: Questions and Answers to Thalassius. XVI // Works of St. Maximus the Confessor. Book 2. pp. 52–53. Here Palamas skillfully plays on the consonance of these words. At this point in the Greek text there is a lacuna. We translate taking into account the Latin translation: sicut fons... (418D). What is understandable psychologically is that if a person considers himself smarter than others, he has every reason to slide into heresy. Examples from the history of “scientific” heresies are well known. Compare: 528B – about the Evangelical widow’s awareness of her sins as the cause of her son’s illness. Note that in other places in his sermons, when discussing the topic of human sinfulness, Palamas almost does not mention the heart. But heartfelt contrition plays an important role among the methods he offers for healing from sinful illnesses. “The Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention” is quoted from the Russian translation by A. G. Dunaev. See: The Path to Sacred Silence. P. 20. Greek. text see: Hausherr I. La Méthode... P. 159. 3–9. Palamas does not analyze this process in more detail in the homilies. But cf. Above is an analysis of the 33rd homily. About a similar theory of St. Gregory of Sinaite, see: Hisamatsu E. Zur Anthropologie... pp. 77–81. τὸ βάραθρον - a bad abyss, in contrast to ἡ ἄβυσσος - the abyss of God's goodness (see, for example: De oratione et puritate cordis capita tria // PG. 150. 1117D). Method of sacred prayer and attention... P. 15; Hausherr I. La Méthode.., P. 150.11–15.. See also: Zarin S. M. Asceticism... P. 242–243. Our nature is defiled by sin (μεμιασμένη - a synonymous word) as a result of the Fall, which is explained dogmatically in a very important place in the Sixteenth Homily, where the Incarnation is discussed (193A). It says here that the Lord alone - due to the miraculous manner of His conception into humanity - did not possess our corrupt nature, but remained free from sin. It also says here: “He who is overwhelmed (literally - rotating, ἐμβραδύνων) by earthly thoughts is completely lawless” (256B). Wed. in a broader context: “When the mind becomes relaxed, ... the potency (δύναμις) of the soul is dissipated into lust (πρὸς ἐπιθυμίαν) of excess foods... bodies... unnecessary things... empty... glory... And a pitiful (ἄθλιος) person, like this crushed (κατακερματιζόμενος) and completely torn apart (κατατεινόμενος) by crafty thoughts about this,... does not see... either the sun itself or the air..." (40D). Wed. context: “What is the use of getting rid of the darkness rising from overeating (τῶν πολλῶν βρωμάτων), and [at the same time] sterile (ἀχρειοῦσθαι) our mind and prayers to God with vain speculations and thoughts?” (161A). From here it becomes clear how much the general spiritual mood and state of a person depends on thoughts. Wed. and the definition of the devil as an intelligent serpent (76C; etc.). Palamas also calls for abstaining from actions in accordance with them (Ibid.). Here we recognize a similar scheme for the genesis of a sinful act: thought > action, deed. Meyendorff John, archpriest. Introduction to Patristic Theology. Klin 2, 2001. P. 258. I will quote the last part of the phrase in the original: ... ἀλλ’ ἕκαστος ἡμῶν δι’ ἑνὸς τούτων, ἢ καὶ πλειόνων, πάντες ἐξεκλίναμεν, ἅμα ἠχρειώθημεν· See its translation in the appendix to this edition. See also: Makarov D. I. The teaching of Gregory Palamas on the purification of man (based on the treatise “Three Chapters on Prayer and Purity of Heart”) and some parallels in late Byzantine mysticism // World of Orthodoxy. Volgograd, 2000. Issue. 3. pp. 61–72. Rigo A. Nota sulla dottrina ascetico-spirituale di Teolepto metropolita di Filadelfia (1250/51–1322) // RSBN. 1987. N. S. Vol. 24. R. 199–200. βασιλεὺς γὰρ καὶ αὐτοκράτωρ τῶν παθῶν ὑπὸ Θεοῦ δεδημιουργημένος ... [sc. ὁ νοῦς ] (505C). This very use of “political” vocabulary is quite characteristic. This part of the phrase is given as direct speech put into the mouth of the Lord. A strikingly poignant picture of how people “... began to be kidnapped by tyrannical sin // and dragged themselves to places of lust... // ... Sin rejoiced in this” was created already in the 2nd century. St. Meliton of Sardis in the famous homily “On Easter”. Recently an excellent Russian edition of the monument was published with a deep and comprehensive commentary, edited by. A.G. Dunaeva, in whose translation we quote the text: St. Meliton of Sardis. About Easter // SDHA. P. 533 (lines 359–360 of the right numbering), 535 (line 395 of the right numbering). Compare, for example, the teaching of the Ancient Patericon about courageously enduring adversity: The Ancient Patericon, set out in chapters / Transl. from Greek M., 1899 (rep.: M., 1991). Ch. 7. pp. 107–130. St. Athanasius of Alexandria. A Word about the incarnation of God the Word and His coming to us in the flesh // Creations. Holy Trinity Sergius Lavra, 1902 (rep.: M., 1994). T. 1. P. 198. St. Gregory of Nyssa. An accurate explanation of the Song of Solomon // Creations. M., 1862. T. 3 (separate repr.: M., 1999). P. 246. (Critical edition: Gregorii Nysseni Opera. Vol. VI. In Canticum Canticorum / Ed. H. Langerbeck. Leiden, 1960). See: Florovsky Georgy, prot. Saint Gregory Palamas and the tradition of the Fathers... P. 386–393; Podskalsky G. Gottesschau und Inkarnation... S. 18–19 (cf. translation of one of the quotes in the Introduction); etc. Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 209–210. Florovsky Georgy, archpriest. About the death of the cross // Dogma and history. P. 182. The word χειρόγραφον means promissory note, acknowledgment of debt. This theme is very ancient in Christian literature; it takes its origins already from Tertullian. See: Lampe G.W. A Patristic Greek Lexicon. Oxford, 1991. S. v.; Aubineau M. Commentaire // Hesychius de Jérusalem et al. Homélies pascales. Paris, 1972, pp. 217–218. See also the parallel in the homily of St. Obino published. Basil of Seleucia "Word for Holy Easter". Christ, according to Basil, “... freed our nature from the ancient debt receipt (παλαιοῦ ... χειρογράφου)” (Ibid. P. 206.4–5; cf. Obino’s translation: Ibid. P. 207). This thought after the works of Fr. Meyendorff, Fr. Podskalski, G.I. Mantzaridis and V.M. Lurie no longer needs detailed justification. See: Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 210–213, 242–246; His same. Jesus Christ in Eastern Orthodox theology. P. 230; His same. Byzantine theology. Historical directions and creed. pp. 139–140; Idem. A Study of Gregory Palamas. P. 149–152, 177; Idem. Le dogme eucharistique... // Byzantine Hesychasm. XIII; Podskalsky G. Gottesschau und Inkarnation. S. 19–24; Mantzarides G.I. The Definition of Man. P. 49–50, 55, 82; Lur'e V. L’attitude de S. Marc... P. 331. O. Podskalski, following Palamas, lists three types of unification of human nature with Christ: the unity of natures in the Incarnation; unity achieved through participation in the Eucharist; unity through illumination by the light of God (Podskalsky G. Gottesschau und Inkarnation. S. 19). Hesychasm, according to the scientist, is for Palamas “an extension (Ergänzung) of the traditional theology of the Sacraments” (Ibid. S. 21). St. Basil the Great. About the Holy Spirit to St. Amphilochius, Bishop of Iconium // Creations... Part 3. M., 1846 (rep.: M., 1993). P. 273. M. Aubineau understands this place differently: un sceau imposé par celui qui prend le rempart... (Aubineau M. Traduction // Hesychius de Jérusalem et al. Homélies pascales. P. 215). It still seems that the word τεῖχος acts as a definition for the word “seal,” and the participle “receiving” denotes the person receiving baptism. De notre saint père Basile, évêque de Séleucie, discours pour le saint jour de Pâques // Hesychius de Jérusalem et al. Homélies pascales. P. 214. 20–29. Vasily (Krivoshein), archbishop. Venerable Simeon the New Theologian... P. 121. It can also be understood as: “...a promise [to be fulfilled] in the next century.” Min's Latin translation is inaccurate at this point. The truly central significance that belongs to the teaching of imitation of Christ in the system of views of the teacher of silence is gradually beginning to be revealed by modern science. See first of all: Mantzatides G. I. The Definition of Man. P. 63–65. Correlating this statement with the Christology set forth in 193B, one can see the harmony between these sides of the teaching, forming, as it were, two wings of a triptych, the third part of which can be considered ecclesiology. And this place finds clear analogies in Palamas: believers, in his words, become, as a result of enlightenment, “...children of that Light (God. - D.M.) (τοῦ φωστῆρος) and other lights (φωστῆρες) - by communion” (296A). Θεολήπτου Φιλαδελφείας του Ομολογητού (1250–1322) Β’ τόμος (Volume ΙΙ). Κριτικό κείμενο – σχόλια. Κατερίνη, 1996. Σελ. 117.6.63–67. Ignace aux Romains // Ignace d’Antioche; Polycarpe de Smyrne. Lettres. Martyre de Polycarpe. P. 112. IV. 3. About Boris and Gleb in this regard, see: G. P. Fedotov. Saints of Ancient Rus'. Rostov-on-Don, 1999. pp. 28–36 (free sacrifice as participation in the Passion of Christ); Toporov V. N. Holiness and saints in Russian spiritual culture. M., 1995, T. 1. P. 490–508 (esp. 501–502) and approx. 119–123 (pp. 564–565); Uspensky B. A. Boris and Gleb. Perception of history in Ancient Rus'. M., 2000. pp. 42–43, 47, 49. In a very important note 119 on p. 564 V. N. Toporov, abundantly quoting the Gospel texts, writes: “Nothing can be more opposite than freedom and death. And the paradox of Boris’s behavior lies precisely in the fact that he gains his highest freedom by choosing death.” And isn’t it paradoxical, in this case, that the very existence of a Christian and Christianity is in a sinful world? This is how Christian preachers introduced particularly difficult topics into their conversations, the mention of which immediately and “head-on” would cause an inevitable reaction of rejection among most of the audience. The same feature of preaching skill V. M. Lurie notes in the homily of St. John Chrysostom (Lurie V.M. The Calling of Abraham. P. 142). Modern science, neither Catholic nor Orthodox, has no doubt that the idea of ​​imitation of Christ is central to Christianity, which alone can be correctly understood not as another “bookish” teaching, but as a life path - following the Theanthropic Person of its Creator. We will indicate only two works of authoritative authors, whose conclusions can be easily supported by appropriate references to sources: John Meyendorff, Archpriest. Introduction to Patristic Theology. P. 19 (based specifically on St. Ignatius the God-Bearer); Podskalsky G. Mönch und Tod in Byzanz // Monastic culture: East and West / Ed. E. G. Vodolazkina. St. Petersburg, 1999. pp. 221–227; cf.: Shpidlik F. Spiritual tradition of the Christian East, pp. 207, 209; etc. The origins of the doctrine of the common glory of God and the saints are discernible in St. Maximus the Confessor, who wrote: “...all of you, brought into spiritual connection with the perfect God, you, aided by faith, immutably go to the communion of good things in vision; the manifestation of this [sacrament] is deification...” (Canati P. La deuxième lettre à Thomas de S. Maxime le Confesseur // Byz. 1964. Vol. 34. Fasz. 2. P. 429.1. 19–21). Stephen of Thebaid. The word ascetic / Transl. T. A. Miller // Patristics. New translations, articles. P. 95. No. 107. Quote from an anonymous elder. See: Ancient Patericon. P. 122. No. 40 (35). The original text of part of this patericon was printed in: PG. T. 65; critical edition, prepared under the editorship of the late Fr. Jean-Claude Guy, unfinished. This refers primarily to St. Athanasius I and Theoliptus of Philadelphia. See: Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 11–25; Idem. Introduction... P. 30–42; Idem. A Study of Gregory Palamas. P. 17–26. See also the literature about them listed in the notes to the Russian edition of the book. Of the newer works (the number of which is growing), we can mention, for example, the following: Lobova-Kostogryzova L. Yu. Spiritual mentoring in Byzantium: Theoliptus of Philadelphia and Irina-Evlogia Humnen // World of Orthodoxy. Volgograd, 2000. Issue. 3. pp. 46–60; etc. Here Palamas’s thought directly follows the thought of Ap. Paul (Rom.8:23), which is evident both from the semantic (eschatological background of asceticism) and from the lexical indicators (the use of the same words υἱοθεσία, ἀπολύτρωσις). For other lexical features of this phrase, see below. Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 209. Many researchers write about the Christocentrism of Palamas’ anthropology (for example, Archimandrite Hierotheus Vlachos). Wed. our Conclusion. A positive answer to this fundamental question is also suggested by acquaintance with other works of Palamas, in particular, with the early treatise “Three Chapters on Prayer and Purity of Heart”; see especially chapter three, in which Palamas defines the soul as “a single living being with many powers” ​​(see Appendix); Wed already in Cassian: Interviews of Egyptian desert dwellers. Interview 19. Ch. 12. P. 524. Here there is also a distinction between the action of passion and passion itself (or, in the words of St. Gregory Palamas, its potency). The corresponding teaching was thus common to the Fathers of monasticism. Below we will encounter data that casts doubt on the plausibility of this statement: see § 8!. And first of all, as we have seen, the Fathers of monasticism - such as the elders of the Egyptian desert, the unknown author of the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention” and St. Pheoliptus. Below we will say more about St. Nikifor the Solitary, who also – so to speak, “from the first to the last lines” – fits into this tradition. As is known, Plato and the Neoplatonists (for example, Ammonius Saccas) taught that philosophy is likeness to God; later a similar definition was given by Theodore Meliteniot. For Palamas, Meliteniot and the Christian tradition as a whole, the most important point separating their understanding of the ways and means of this assimilation from Plato’s is the difference between God and creation, which the creature cannot overcome. (See, for example: Ševčenko I. The Definition of Philosophy in the “Life of Saint Constantine” // For Roman Jakobson. Essays on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday, 11 October 1956 / Compiled by M. Halie, H. G. Lunt, H. Me Lean, S. H. van Schooneveld. The Hague, 1956. P. 455–457; It is noteworthy that Nicephorus Blemmydes reproduces this definition with a characteristic clarification: philosophy, he says, is “likening God to the extent of human capabilities. ( κατὰ τὸ δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ )....” (PG. 142.723–724). For his part, St. Simeon the New Theologian teaches: “... one must put on the humility and meekness of Christ, in order to become completely like Christ” - but this perfection can only be achieved by grace! See: Venerable Simeon the New Theologian. Creations. T. 1. P. 315; cp. c. 310 et passim. Quote based on the translation by V. M. Lurie in: Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 233. Sinkewicz R. E. Introduction. R. 50–52. The comparison of the works of Simeon the New Theologian and Gregory Palamas has become traditional, starting with the works of Krivoshein and Meyendorff. See: Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 217; as well as the works of Y. Pelikan, a number of review essays by S. S. Averintsev and others. A little earlier in the treatise we talked about St. Mark the Ascetic and Abba Arseny, the great Fathers of Egyptian monasticism. The self-awareness of the largest representatives of late Byzantine monasticism as direct successors of the tradition of the Great Anthony, imprinted in the quoted lines, is very indicative and characteristic. Callistos Angelicoudès. Quatre traits... P. 224. The co-occurrence rate of these words in Palamas' homilies is very high; Wed Table 4. The corresponding fragment of the text of the Thirty-first homily (392ВС) almost completely coincides with the 56th chapter of the “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters,” which was noted by R. E. Sinkevich (Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 282). It seems that “One Hundred and Fifty Chapters” has chronological priority. See: Meyendorff John, prot. Introduction to Patristic Theology... P. 257–259; Lurie V. M. Note 44 // Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 175–176. When analyzing Palamas's teaching on spiritual mourning, one should take into account the tradition of St. Mark of the Ascetic, St. Simeon the Reverent, Simeon the New Theologian and Gregory the Sinaite. Thus, Simeon the Reverent writes, examining this issue from the same angle as Palamas: “...where there is contrition and spiritual crying, there is divine illumination (ὅπου κατάνυξις καὶ πένθος πνευματικόν, ἐχεῖ καὶ ἔλλαμψις θεία)... try to cleanse yourself of passions by crying (διὰ πένθους)...” (Syméon le Studite. Discours ascetique... P. 82. 9. 10–11; 84. 11. 6–7). Gregory of Sinaite gives similar instructions to young monks: “... he little by little becomes a companion of angels, who has purified the mind with tears, resurrected the soul here by the Spirit, subdued the flesh to the mind and changed his... external image into the light-like and fiery face of Divine beauty...” (Venerable Gregory of Sinaite. Very useful chapters... Ch. 45 / Trans. by Bishop Benjamin (Milova). M., 1999. P. 22). The decisive role of Gregory of Sinaite in the hesychast revival of the 13th–14th centuries, generally recognized today, was emphasized by scientists of the old school (A.I. Yatsimirsky, G. Wunderle, etc.). See, for example: Alexy (Dorodnitsyn), ep. Byzantine church mystics...; Yatsimirsky A. I. Byzantine religious mysticism of the 14th century before its transition to the Slavs // Wanderer. 1908. T. 2. Part 1. November. pp. 513–514; Wunderle G. Zur Psychologie... S. 16; cf.: Rigo A. La vita e le opere di Gregorio Sinaita. In margine ad una recente pubblicazione [Balfour 1981] // Cristianesimo nella storia. 1989. Vol. 10 (foundational study). See also: Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 198–199, 201, 235. The corresponding text of the 31st homily (392D–393A) coincides with the 57th chapter (see: Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. R. 150.57. 3–10; 282). Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 207 (where the most important text is analyzed - “Triads”. 2. 2. 29); His own. Introduction to Patristic Theology. pp. 406–407, Romanides J. Notes... Pt. 2. R. 233–234; Mantzarides G.I. The Definition of Man. P. 83–85; etc. (S. Maximi Confessoris De ambius // PG. 91. 1308B); noted in: Contos L. C. The essence – energy structure... P. 294. N. 77. Cf.: κατὰ μέθεξιν θέωσις (Rapp C. Ein bisher unbekannter Brief... S. 20.287–288) – expression of St. Gregory of Cyprus; Maxim's expression is quoted verbatim by Patr. Neil in: Encomium auct. Nilo SR. //PG. 151.667A; cf.: PG. 150.944C. Let us recall the interpretation of the Song of Songs by Origen and St. Gregory of Nyssa. Compare, in particular: Makarov D. I. The originality of the teachings of St. Gennady Scholaria about Providence // History and culture of the Middle Ages: Current problems. St. Petersburg, 2002. pp. 5–7. “For without a contrite heart,” Palamas testifies, “truly one cannot achieve repentance” (85D). Of course, if you do not understand the word “people” in the narrow ethnographic sense contained in the word ἔθνος, in contrast to λαός (see below). Almost the same expression - τὸ τοῦ Χριστοῦ ἅγιον ἔθνος - is used in relation to Russians in the letter of St. Philotheus Kokkin, Patriarch of Constantinople, to the Grand Duke of Moscow Dimitri Ivanovich (1370). See a detailed historical analysis of the circumstances that led to the writing of this letter from Filofey: Medvedev I. R. Die Russen als “heiliges Volk” aus der Sicht Konstantinopels im 14. Jahrhundert // Geschichte und Kultur der Palaiologenzeit. S. 145–150; or in Russian: Medvedev I.P. Russians as a “holy people”: a view from Constantinople of the 14th century // Verbum. Vol. 3. Byzantine theology... P. 83–89. In the letter of Gregory of Cyprus, a similar expression is devoid of any political connotation. Rapp C. Ein bisher unbekannter Brief... S. 20.291–294. Conversations...Ch. 3. P. 102; Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 222. However, understanding the teachings of Palamas as an integral ensemble of ideas allows us to draw such a conclusion. Wed. in the 34th homily: “...this lordship penetrates... into all those who continuously strive (extend, τοῖς ... ἀνατεινομένοις) to God...” (432A). However, for the latter it is necessary to acquire a special gift of grace. See in 433B: “So this light is not sensual, and those who saw it did not see with bodily eyes, but with transfigured power of the Spirit of God”; Wed: 429AB. This teaching will be developed by Theophanes of Nicaea and subsequent Palamites (see: Polemis I. D. Theophanes of Nicaea... P. 96). See: Conversations... 4.3. P. 162; Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 242–244; Lurie V. M. Note 111 // Ibid. P. 243. Wed. With. 252. About the term “co-corporeal” see: Ibid. P. 211. Note. 92. This word is found in St. Gregory of Nyssa and Simeon the New Theologian. See, for example: St. Gregory of Nyssa. Explanation of the Song of Solomon. XV. P. 469; Rev. Simeon the New Theologian. Creations. T. 1. P. 341; Vasily (Krivoshein), archbishop. Venerable Simeon the New Theologian. P. 117. Conversations... Part 3. pp. 163, 164. Tr. 1. 3. 38 // ΓΠΣ–1. Σελ. 449.4–21; Wed rus. lane in: Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 211–212. Compare: St. Gregory Palamas. Triads in defense of the sacredly silent. M., 1996. pp. 100–101. Mantzarides G. I. The Deification of Man. P. 53. Per. archim. Ambrose (Pogodin) (Conversations... Part 3. P. 161). Original see: Economy. P. 207. Mantzarides G.I. The Definition of Man. P. 49–50; etc. Quote by: Vasily (Krivoshein), archbishop. Venerable Simeon the New Theologian. pp. 124–125. The basis of this teaching is the experimentally tested and first recorded in the clear language of the doctrine of St. Macarius of Egypt, blessed. Diadochos of Photiki taught that the infusion of grace into a person occurs “in every sensation and action of the Spirit,” so that a person “is convinced (πληροφορεῖται)” that the light that has visited him is truly the Light of the Lord. A minimal effect of grace accompanies a person who is heartily and spiritually preparing for the Sacrament, so that he begins to understand this Sacrament in a spiritual sense. See, in particular: Sidorov A.I. Venerable Macarius of Egypt and the problem of the “Makarievsky Corps” // Alpha and Omega. 1999. No. 4(22). P. 156; etc. The main position of this article - that the problem of attribution of the “Makarievsky Corps” is a problem invented by Western scientists for the purpose of confessional polemics - contains a number of errors and inaccuracies. When discussing this entire range of problems, we should now use the excellent monograph by A.G. Dunaev and the edition of the text he prepared: St. Macarius of Egypt. Spiritual words and messages. Collection of type I (Vatic. Graec. 694) / Edition prepared by A. G. Dunaev. M., 2002. (Two books in one. pp. 5–370 contain a detailed preface by the author. An excellent publication and a real monument to patrolological thought). Meyendorff J. St. Gregory Palamas and Orthodox Spirituality. P. 75; rus. nep. – John Meyendorff, Rev. History of the Church and Eastern Christian mysticism. P. 301. Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 242; Podskalsky G. Gottesschau und Inkarnation... S. 19–22. Arseny, ep. St. Gregory Palamas, Metropolitan of Thessalonica, three creations... P. 2 (Greek text), 3 (Russian translation, different from ours). Wed. the expression ἀγγελικὸς βίος in relation to early monasticism; Wed § 8. Venerable Simeon the New Theologian. Twelve words. Word two // Our Venerable Fathers Mark the Ascetic, Isaiah the Hermit, Simeon the New Theologian Spiritual and moral words. Sergiev Posad, 1911 (rep.: M., 1995). P. 453; cf.: St. Gregory of Nyssa. Explanation of the Song of Solomon. Conversation 9. P. 294; Conversation 12. P. 348; Venerable Gregory of Sinai. Other words // Creations. P. 79; etc. Syméon le Studite. Discoursascétique... P. 84.13.1–86.13.10. On the word “boldness”, see also the note by Fr. Alfeeva: Ibid. R. 85. n. 5. The same verb as in Simeon the Studite, generally very frequent (see Lampe). Venerable Gregory of Sinai. Creations. P. 106. Lurie V. M. Abraham's Calling. P. 110. The immediate patristic basis for this conclusion was the 21st Interview of St. John Cassian "On the Privileges of Pentecost." Shpidlik F. Spiritual tradition of Eastern Christianity. P. 291 and approx. 50 (p. 294). However, he refers only to the Epistles of Sts. Barsanuphius and Joanna. Προηγεῖται δὲ τῆς μετανοίας ἡ ἐπίγνωσις τῶν οἰκείων πταισμάτων ... We have already encountered this identification of spirit and soul, which allows us to see in St. Gregory Palamas, a supporter of dichotomism; compare, however, what was said at the beginning of the chapter. Athanase d'Alexandrie. Vie d’Antoine / Intr., texte critique, trad., notes et index par G. J. M. Bartelink. Paris, 1994. (SC, 400). P. 218.30.6–7. Lurie V. M. Afterword. Part 4. The problem of arbitrariness of virtues // St. Gregory of Nyssa. About the structure of man. St. Petersburg, 2 2000. P. 209. The patristic basis for this conclusion is the 3rd Interview of Rev. John Cassian (with Abba Paphnutius). Method of sacred prayer and attention... P. 22; Hausherr I., S. J. La Méthode... P. 162 [66]. 13–16. This word is used by Palamas to denote mystical intimacy with God, being devoid of those heretical (in terms of Christology) connotations that it acquires in the teaching of Theodore of Mopsuestia and some other representatives of the Antiochian school. For a message on the significance of this passage, see: Makarov D. I. Hesychast motifs in the homilies of St. Gregory Palamas // Faith and the Church in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times: (Western Europe and Byzantium). M., 2001. pp. 24–25. I thank Mr. D. A. Pospelov, who helped me better understand the meaning of the quoted lines. ... τοὺς ἀποστόλους ἐκείνους μιμούμενος .. The topic of imitation of the Apostles is part of a more general topic - about imitation of God and His saints, as discussed above. This word is also used in the Fortieth Homily, where Palamas invites each of his listeners (obviously monks) to be satisfied with “this humble house (τῷ ... οἰκίσκῳ) given to each by the primate” (512D). See § 8. The world, according to Palamas, is twofold: “... the one that we have with God is the product, mainly, of piety; and the one that we have (support, ἔχομεν) with each other...” (280AV). Actually, this is the keeping of two main commandments: the concepts of “peace” and “love” in this sense are closely intertwined with each other. But the latter is more comprehensive. See: History of Egyptian monks / Transl. N. A. Kulkova. M., 2001. P. 62; Venerable Gregory of Sinai. Creations. P. 45. 99; Davydova S. A. Translated Patericon // Literature of Ancient Rus'. Biobibliographical dictionary. P. 129; etc. Method of sacred prayer and attention... P. 25; Hausherr I., S. J. La Méthode... P. 166. His Holiness Patriarch of Constantine-city Cyrus Philotheus Tradition to his disciple on how to carefully stay in the cell with his novices / Trans. from Old Russian Monk Alimpius (Verbitsky), ed. and with notes by A. G. Dunaev // The path to sacred silence. pp. 140–143. Wed. χρηστουργία (performing good, humane, humane, etc. deeds) by St. Gregory of Cyprus: Rapp C. Ein bisher unbekannter Brief... S. 19. 276. Wed. on the list of St. Gregory of Cyprus: ἀγνεία ψυχῆς (Ibid. S. 19.244). Wed. ibid.: πλεονεξίας ἀποχή (Ibid.). One of the most common designations of the Jesus Prayer, in this context referring to the publican’s prayer. In this passage, which is very important in meaning, Palamas speaks of this prayer: ... (28Α). “Why,” asks Palamas, “does humility elevate you to the pinnacle of righteousness, while conceit brings you down to the abyss of sin? Because he who imagines himself to be something great, and even in the face of God, is rightly (δικαίως) abandoned by God - as someone who does not seem to need His help...” (20B). Wed. in Gregory of Cyprus: δικαιοσύνης ἔρως (Ibid. S. 19.245) Wed. from earlier authors in Cassian (Interview XX. 8 // Creations. P. 533), and from the closest Palamas - in St. Gregory of Cyprus (Rapp C. Ein bisher unbekannter Brief... S. 19.242–243). “...and faith without works is dead and illusory (unstable, ἀσύστατος), and works without faith are vain and useless...” (101C). Wed: James 2:17; etc. “For just as the air, being filled with the light of the sun, shows us not its own, but the sun’s glory and splendor, so those who, thanks to the work [of fulfilling] the commandments, have united with God... possess the fragrance of Christ...” (417A). On following Christ (according to the teachings of the Eastern Fathers), see also: George Florovsky, Archpriest. Dogma and history. P. 219. Virtue is the opposite of pride, self-aggrandizement, conceit, self-love, etc. One of the types of smart doing (see below). St. also speaks about him. Theoliptus of Philadelphia Βίος καί έργα. Β’ . “And fasting and abstinence lull the unrest (rebellion, τὰς ... ἐπαναστάσεις) of the body, tame the fury of anger and lust...” (105A). Here the saint gives the most important advice: “...do as much virtue as you can in secret, looking to God alone...” (141B). Wed: Matthew 6:6. “Work and striving [aimed] at the good, perfect a person [living] according to God (τον κατά Θεόν τελειονσιν άνθρωπον), coming together with each other” (401D). Described as a virtue that purifies the irritable part of the soul (prayer and knowledge are the mind, and chastity is lust) (Ibid.). Thus, according to this place in the Ninth Homily, we obtain the following diagram: The name of the part of the soul The virtue that heals it Mind Prayer, knowledgeˆLustful beginning ChastityˆIrritable beginning Meekness Wed. in Gregory of Cyprus: έκτενης προσευχή (Rapp C. Ein bisher unbekannter Brief... S. 19.243). Wed. ibid.: πενήτων συμπάθεια (Ibid.). Theoliptus of Philadelphia also speaks of ῥήματα συνέσεως (Θεολήπτου Φιλαδέλφειας ... Βίος καί έργα. Τ. Β’. Σελ . 115.41). Wed. in Gregory of Cyprus: Rapp C. Ein bisher unbekannter Brief... S. 19.244.. Wed. from Theoliptus of Philadelphia: “For the preservation (φυλακὴ) of the commandments of Christ and the labor of acquiring virtues... form nutritious material (τροφὴ) for the glory of God” (Θεολήπτου Φιλαδέλφειας ... Βίος καί έργα. Β’. Understood in a generalized sense - as a person’s general life-creative, constructive attitude, this phenomenon was called “biophilia” (as opposed to necrophilia) by Erich Fromm. It would make sense to compare Fromm's corresponding theory with the patristic Tradition. In any case, in its main features she agrees with him. See: Fromm E. Soul of man. M., 1992. A variety of philosophical systems teach about the fullness of being and the desire for it as the goal of the existence of living organisms - from angels to the simplest. See, for example: Lossky N. O. Value and being // His own. Gods of world evil, M., 1994. Here St. Gregory Palamas uses this word in the specified specific sense. Florovsky G., prot. About the latest things and latest events // Dogma and history. P. 446. Ράντοβιτς Α. Το μυστήριον ... Σελ . 197. All Orthodox theology glorifies God as light. Of the most important texts, see: S. Gregorii Theologi Oratio XL. In sanctum baptisma // PG. 36.364B–365D; S. Dionysii Araeopagitae De coelesti hierarchia. Caput III // PG. 3. 165C. And so that no one thinks that God is essentially light, St. Callistus Angelicud, one of the greatest hesychasts of all time and follower of St. Gregory Palamas, explains, commenting on 1 John 1:5: “... if God is called light, then as the Author of it” (§ 503. Quoted from: Παπαδοπούλου Σ. Συνάντησις ... Σελ . 152). See: Vasily (Krivoshein), archbishop. Ascetic and theological teaching... P. 183; Makarov D. I. The place of anthropological ideas... P. 232–236, 243–249. Some of the materials in this article are presented here in a noticeably expanded form. See: Lossky V.N. Theology of light in the teaching of St. Gregory Palama // ZhMP. 1968. No. 3. P. 76–77; No. 4, pp. 49–62. Νικοδήμου Ἁγιορείτου Πρόλογος εἰς τὰ συγγράμματα τοῦ ἐν ἁγίοις πατρὸς ἡμῶν Γρηγορίου τοῦ Παλαμᾶ // Ἐκκλησιαστική Ἀλήθεια. Ἔτος Δ’. 1883. Τεῦχος Ζ’. Σελ. 96. In turn, Radovich calls Palamas “this secret place of the Light of Tabor” (Ράντοβιτς Α. Το μυστήριον ... Σελ. 36). Cyprian (Kern), archimandrite. Anthropology... P. 428. Meyendorff John, Rev. St. Gregory Palamas. Its place in the Tradition of the Church and modern theology. P. 166; etc. “... the soul,” he wrote, “that has achieved purity, must have nothing in itself except God, and not pay attention to anything else, but only be pure from every material matter and concept, so that, having completely and completely transformed into the mental and immaterial, it can make itself the most clear image of the beauty of the Prototype... And what, for example, happens to a mirror when it is skillfully constructed..., then on its clean surface it exactly shows the features of what is visible in it faces: the same thing happened with the soul; Having prepared herself in accordance with the need and having rejected from herself all material filth, she reflected in herself the pure image of undamaged beauty” (St. Gregory of Nyssa. Explanation of the Song of Solomon. pp. 446–447. Conversation 15). Παπαδοπούλου Σ. Συνάντησις ... Σελ. 141, 153. For an introduction to the topic, see first: Meyendorff J. St. Grégoire Palamas et la mystique orthodoxe... (Russian translation: John Meyendorff, Archpriest. History of the Church and Eastern Christian mysticism...). Both terms have been used by scientists since the 1970s. Without turning to the works of the classic of Western literary Slavic studies Ricardo Picchio, who in many ways initiated the study of Byzantine and Slavic culture of that time, we will refer only to works important for the history of theology: Meyendorff J. Spiritual Trends... P. 59; Sinkewicz R. E. The Doctrine ol God's Image in Man... P. 29; Prokhorov G. M. Cultural originality... // TODRL. 1979. T. 34. P. 8–9; Hisamatsu E. Zur Anthropologie... S. 59. However, approaches to this concept are already available in the works of Florovsky in the 50s. See: Florovsky G., prot. Saint Gregory Palamas and the tradition of the Fathers. P. 386. In addition to the works of these scientists already cited or mentioned in the Introduction, see also: Hausherr I., S. J. Prière de vie. Vie de prière. P. 23, 33, 57–60, 133, 157, 296, 307, 311–314, 376, 381, 404, 416, 420, 433, 436–447; Ivanka E. von. Besprechungvon: Writings from the Philokalia. On Prayer of the Heart. Translated of the Russian Text “Dobrotolubiye” by E. Kadloubovsky and G. E. H. Palmer. London, 1951 // JÖBG. 1952. Bd. 2; Meyendorff J. Mount Athos in the Fourteenth Century: Spiritual and Intellectual Legacy // DOP. 1988. Vol. 42; Tachiaos A.-E. Hesyshasm as a Creative Force in the Fields of Art and Literature // L’art de Thessalonique...; Sinkewicz R. E. An Early Byzantine Commentary on the Jesus Prayer: Introduction and Edition // MS. 1987. Vol. 49; Prokhorov G. M. The Tale of Mityai. Rus' and Byzantium in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. L., 1978 (2 St. Petersburg, 2000); His same. Journalism of John Cantacuzenus 1367–1371. // BB. 1969. T. 29; His same. Works of David Disipat in Old Russian Literature // TODRL. 1979. T. 33; Sidorov A. I. Anonymous treatise “The Method of Holy Prayer and Attention” and its place in the history of Hesychasm // XVIII International Congress of Byzantinists. Summary of messages. M., 1991. T. 2; His same. Holy Scripture in Egyptian monasticism of the 4th century. (Based on the Greek version of the works of St. Ammon) // Traditions and heritage of the Christian East. Materials of the international conference / Rep. ed. D. E. Afinogenov and A. V. Muravyov. M., 1996; His same. Ancient Christian asceticism and the origin of monasticism...; Lurie V. M. The Calling of Abraham...; Grolimund V. Between hermitage and community life: monastery charter and cell rules. Their emergence, development and spread until the 16th century // Monastic culture... For more details, see: Bibliography of Hesychasm / Rep. ed. A. G. Dunaev, S. S. Khoruzhy. M., 2002/2003 (in print). Vasily (Krivoshein), archbishop. Ascetic... P. 203; Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 11 (about St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia), 198; Sinkewicz R. E. The Concept... P. 389–390. What is important now is Sinkevich’s chapter in: Théologie byzantine et sa tradition... See especially: Rigo A. L’epistola ai monaci (e l’epistola ad un igumeno) di uno Pseudo-Crisostomo: un trattato dell’orazione esicasta scritto nello spirito dello Pseudo-Macario // Studi e ricerche sull’Oriente Cristiano. 1983. Fasz. 3. P. 197–215; Beyer H.-V. Die Lichtlehre der Mönche des vierzehnten und des vierten Jahrhunderts, erörtert am Beispiel des Pseudo-Macarios, des Euagrios Pontikos und des Gregorios Sinaites // JÖB. 1982. Bd. 31/2. Hilarion (Alfeev), priest. Life and teaching... P. 360, 375 (St. Gregory the Theologian is named one of the founders of the Jesus Prayer). Examples of using St. Gregory the Theologian collected the terms ἡσυχία not taken into account by Fr. Alfeeva Art.: Kertsch M. Gregor von Nazianz’ Stellung zu THEORIA und PRAXIS aus der Sicht seiner Reden // Byzantion. 1974. Vol. 44. Fasz. 2. S. 282–289. Oh St. Maxim the Confessor, see: Sidorov A. I. St. Maximus the Confessor: era, life, creativity // Creations of St. Maximus the Confessor. Book 1. P. 38. Note. 3. Μαντζαρίδου Γ. Ι. Ορθόδοξος πνευματικότης ... Σελ. 61. Podskalsky G. Il metropolita Cipriano di Kiev/Mosca e la comparsa dell’esicasmo in Russia // Amore del Bello. P. 208; Sinkewicz R. E. The Doctrine of God’s Image in Man... P. 21 (it is emphasized that Palamas’ interest is more directed towards anthropological issues than that of the Sinaite). As an example of the analysis of the “Sinaitic” branch of hesychasm, which sprung up in Russia in the person of St. Nil Sorskij, see: Nil Sorskij e l’esicasmo..., as well as the undeservedly forgotten article: Davids A. J. M. Nil Sorskij und der Hesychasmus in Russland // JÖB. 1969. Bd. 18. S. 167–194, Podskalsky G. Gottesschau und Inkarnation... S. 19–24; Meyendorff J. Le dogme eucharistique dans les controverses théologiques du XIV e siècle // Byzantine Hesychasm. XIII; Mantzarides G. J. The Definition of Man. P. 49–50, 55, 82; Lur'e V. L’attitude de S. Marc d’Ephèse... P. 331. G. Podskalsky (Gottesschau... P. 21) even speaks of Palamas’ understanding of hesychasm as “an extension (Ergänzung) of the traditional theology of the Sacraments.” On the Jesus Prayer in general, see: Hausherr Noms du Christ et voies d’oraison. P. 123–129 (“Sens et but de la „prière de Jésus“”), 235–281; Rigo A. Preghiera di Gesù...; Lurie V. M. Comments... pp. 409–417. About the Jesus Prayer in the works of St. Gregory Palamas see: Meyendorff John. Life and works... P. 199; Rigo A. Le formule... P. 8–9; Idem. Preghiera di Gesù... P. 272. We find this formula (“Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me”) in the treatise of St. Nikephoros the Solitary: PG. 147. 964B, 965A; its predecessors can be traced through sources, starting with the apothegmas of the Egyptian elders: Rigo A. Preghiera di Gesù... P. 249, 252–253; Lurie V. M. The calling of Abraham... The same formula is found in Nilus of Sora (Rigo A. Preghiera di Gesù... P. 276). It is especially important for us to emphasize the moment of transcendence of human capabilities and deification by the grace of God. See: Triads. 2. 3. 57; 2. 3. 68 (ΓΠΣ –Ι. Σελ . 591:602); Μαντζαρίδου Γ. Ι. Ορθόδοξος πνευματικότης ... Σελ. 56, 59, 60–61; Romanides J. Notes... P. 267–268; Mantzarides G.I. The Definition of Man. P. 103, Meyendorff John, prot. St. Gregory Palamas... P. 162. That the whole person, according to the teaching of St. Gregory Palamas, participates in the perception of God and is enlightened, see: Meyendorff John. Life and works... P. 237; It's him. St. Gregory Palamas... P. 163; Meyendorff J. Humanisme nominaliste et mystique chrétienne à Byzance au XIVe siècle // Byzantine Hesychasm. P. 912; that the whole person, including the body, will be deified in the next century, see from the latest works: Lison J. La divinisation selon Grégoire Palamas: Un sommet de la théologie orthodoxe... P. 68–69; Sinkewicz R. E. The Concept... P. 387–389 (“An Eschatological Dimension”), Cf. testimony of a modern hesychast: “God embraces man completely: mind, heart and body” (Sophrony (Sakharov), archimandrite. On the personal principle in Divine Being and human existence // Man. 1994. No. 1. P. 87). Hesychasm of St. John of Damascus is clearly expressed in the excerpt from his Homily on the Transfiguration given in this paragraph. As for St. Andrei Kritsky, then evidence of the ancient Russian life of the saint has been preserved: “In silence for many years I remained for him...” (Belobrova O. A. Andrei Kritsky in ancient Russian literature and art // TODRL. 1999. T. 51. P. 217). List of other versions of the life (BHG. 113–114c), other works of St. Andrei (incomplete; in particular, the homily for the Transfiguration is not indicated; see the links below and our Bibliographical list) and literature about him, see: Sergius (Pravdolyubov), prot., etc. Andrew... Archbishop of Crete // Orthodox Encyclopedia. T. 2. P. 354 (cf. entire article, pp. 352–355). Sinkewicz R. E. The Concept... P. 389. It seems to me that these traces appear in some of the works of St. Anastasia Sinaita, about which see below. Παπαδοπούλου Σ. Συνάντησις ... Σελ. 145. At least as far as “small eschatology” is concerned, i.e., the achievement of deification by one or another individual person. Thus, already in the “Canons of the Holy Apostles” it is said: “... the day of the Lord is near (ἡ ἡμέρα Κυρίου), when everything will perish along with the evil one; then the Lord will come and His reward will come” (Canons of the Holy Apostles. 14. Quoted from: Sidorov A.I. Patrolology Course. P. 62). Ὅτι Βαρλαὰμ καὶ Ἀκίνδυνος ... // ΓΠΣ. T . 2. Σελ. 272. 8–10. See: Averintsev S. S. Rhetoric and the origins of the European literary tradition. M., 1996; etc. Hausherr I.,S.J. La Méthode... R. 164 [68]. 19–21. In these words one cannot help but see a reflection of the mystical tradition of the Makarievsky corpus, the author (authors) of which considers the heart to be the spiritual center of the soul. Compare, for example: “And when grace takes possession of the pastures of the heart, then it reigns (cf. Rom. 5:21) over all thoughts and members, for there is the mind and all the thoughts [reading one of the manuscripts: and aspirations] of the soul, and penetrates into all the members [reading one of the manuscripts: the body]" (Venerable Macarius of Egypt. Spiritual words and messages... Word 32. P. 657; publisher's italics). Isn’t that what both Palamas and Nikephoros are talking about? The visible manifestation of grace is joy. Theoleptos of Philadelphia. The Monastic Discourses. MD1. P. 84.2.19. Callistos Angelicoudès. Quatre traités hésychastes... P. 212. High-quality Russian translation: Callistus Angelicud. Word XVI. About spiritual warfare and the sacred silence that goes along with it // The Path to Sacred Silence. WITH . 103–104. Translated by M. V. Gratsiansky and A. G. Dunaev - “understanding.” Callistos Angelicoudès. Quatre traités hésychastes... P. 212. The parallel goes further, including a quote from one of the Fathers. See below in the text. PG. 93. 1504B. See § 8 for a more detailed translation of this passage. St. Gregory of Nyssa. Explanation of the Song of Solomon. P. 15, Wed. With. 334. Wed: ... καλὸν ἐστιν ἡμᾶς ὧδε εἶναι (Matthew 17:4). The entire Byzantine homiletics on the Transfiguration speaks of the fact that the Apostle Peter misunderstood what was happening - as if it was the advent of the Kingdom of God. The opinion of the Apostle Peter was incorrect for two reasons: on the one hand, then (as now) the time of the coming of the Kingdom of God had not yet arrived; on the other hand, how can Christ, the Creator of creation and the Heavenly Tabernacle, be contained by something limited and earthly? See, for example: S. Procli CP Oratio Vili. In Transfigurationem Domini... // PG. 65. 765B–768B; S. Basilii Seleuciensis Oratio XL. In Transfigurationem Domini... // PG. 85.460AC. On the first occasion, St. Proclus says, addressing the Apostle: “If it is good for us to be on earth, then in vain you are called the keymaster of heaven” (PG. 65. 768AB). As for the second, St. Basil puts direct speech into the mouth of God the Father, beginning with the question: “Why do you equate slaves (συντάττετε) with the Master?” (PG. 85. 460A). Wed. from Proclus: “...giving the same honor to the Master as to His servants” (PG. 65. 765BC) - we are talking about the Apostle Peter. Christ is the Heavenly Tabernacle, the Alpha and Omega of creation, and that is why the proposal of the Apostle Peter was inappropriate. Wed. also: Timothei Antiocheni In crucem et in Transfigurationem Domini nostri Jesu Christi // PG. 86.261AC; S. Joannis Damasceni Oratio de gloriosa Domini nostri Jesu Christi transfiguratione // PG. 96.569A–572A; etc. Consideration of the Apostle Peter’s proposal to make three tabernacles was an indispensable component of the sermons on the Transfiguration - precisely because of the exceptional soteriological and eschatological significance of the question raised by the Apostle. See: Riesenfeld N. Jesus Transfiguré. L'arrière-plan du récit évangélique de la Transfiguration de Notre-Seigneur. København, 1947. (Acta Seminarii Neotestamentici Upsaliensis, 16); Lurie V. M. Comments... P. 430. V. M. Lurie draws attention to the prophecy of Am.9:11 and Acts 15:16. We also have to keep in mind the liturgical prehistory of the Feast of the Transfiguration, which is associated with the Old Testament Feast of Tabernacles (which is undoubtedly after the work of H. Riesenfeld), although the intermediate links of liturgical evolution remain unclear. This thesis, which has long been proven by a number of researchers, following Krivoshein, Kern and Meyendorff, is central in the wonderful book by A. Radovich: Ράντοβιτς Α. Τὸ μυστήριον ... Σελ . 19 et seq. The main conflict of the era is described by the author as the confrontation between man-god humanism and the “living biblical and patristic Tradition.” The same approach is characteristic of S. Papadopoulos, Archimandrite. Hierotheos Vlachos and other modern Greek patrolologists. In particular, the tradition's body positivity is based on scriptures such as 1 Corinthians 6:20; etc. By τὰ θεῖα in this context, obviously, one should understand what in the tradition of Eastern Christian theology is known as τὰ περὶ Θεὸν, πρόοδοι (Pseudo-Areopagite), etc., i.e., the energies of God. The first term (“that which is around God”) was actively used already at the end of the 14th century. St. Callistus Angelicud in the form τὰ περὶ τὴν οὐσίαν [sc. Θεῦ ] (see: Παπαδοπούλου Σ. Συνάντησις ... Σελ . 152–153). In his being, God is not equal to essence; is not exhausted by it, but emerges from it, creating and supporting the world, being in it: for the Byzantine hesychasts, close to Palamas in their mentality and ascetic practice, this was a self-evident and experienced axiom of soteriology. In particular, on this basis the same Angelicude criticized the essentialism of Thomas Aquinas (see the indicated work of S. Papadopoulos). The significance of energies, perhaps not sufficiently disclosed in modern Orthodox theology (especially in the light of the criticism of Akindinus and the later anti-Palamites), for the theological system of Palamas was convincingly shown by V. N. Lossky (see: Essay..., passim), as well as A. de Halle, G. M. Prokhorov and many other authors. (For consultations on some issues related to this, I sincerely thank Hierarch Grigory (Lurie), D. A. Pospelov and A. G. Dunaev). Παπαδοπούλου Σ. Συνάντησις ... Σελ. 147–148. The biblical basis for both Macarius and Callistus was 2 Cor. 4:6. Hausherr I.S.J. La Méthode... R. 164 [68]. 19–21. Triads. 2. 3. 57 // ΓΠΣ–1. Θεσσαλονίκη, 1962. Σελ. 591.14–22. This is how St. interprets the teaching about the need for a person praying to “climb the mountain.” Theoleptos of Philadelpheia. The Monastic Discourses. MD5. P. 186.1–2. Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 252.147.11–12; etc. Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 256.150.8. Ibid. P. 250.146.9–10; cf.: p. 252.247.2. Ibid. P. 252.147.4,9–12. Theophan of Nicea calls the Light of Tabor “the uncreated glory and grace of the Divine” (translated by Archimandrite Ambrose (Pogodin): Three Epistles of the ever-memorable Metropolitan Theophan of Nicea, supporter and contemporary of St. Gregory Palamas (14th century). First Epistle // Conversations (omilia)... Part 2. P. 215). Operum Gregorii Palamae argumenta ex codicibus coislinianis // PG. 150.823. Παπαμιχαήλ Γ. Ὅ ἅγιος Γρηγόριος Παλαμᾶς ... Σελ. 100. We find a different numbering in A.F. Losev (Essays on ancient symbolism and mythology. M., 1993. pp. 894–899), who reports that he used the publication of F.I. Uspensky. Did G. Papamikhail turn to less reliable manuscripts without collating them? Rigo A. Noterelle in margin... P. 139. N. 49. I.e. by the grace of God. Wed. in the same meaning: “with the best... care and strength (προμηθείᾳ καὶ δυνάμει... κρείττονι)” (396D–397Α). St. John of Damascus. An accurate exposition of the Orthodox faith / Trans. A. Bronzova. St. Petersburg, 1894 (reprint: M., 1998). P. 44. “Age” = “day” (cf. the six days of creation and the seventh day of rest in Genesis 1). Palamas assumes exactly “day”, because the expression τῆς ὀγδόης requires the word f. r. (ἡμέρας), not m.r. (αἰῶν). Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 263; cf.: Meyendorff J. Introduction... P. 267. Sancii Patris nostri Ephraem Syri Opera omnia quae exstant Graece, Syriace, Latine, in sex tomos distributa ad MSS. Codices Vaticanos aliosque castigata, multis aucta, Nova interpretatione, Praefationibus, Notis, Variantibus Lectionibus illustrata. Romae, 1743. T. 2. P. 42–43. Ibid. 460V. Wed. Timothy of Antioch has the same idea (PG. 86. 261AB). Markevski I. Terms... P. 209.. Saint Gregory the Sinaite. Discourse... P. 650. 7.112–113. The works of our venerable father and confessor Theodore the Studite in Russian translation. St. Petersburg, 1907. T. 1. P. 266. See, for example: St. Gregory Palamas. Triads in defense of the sacredly silent. 1. 3. 26. (ΓΠΣ–1. Σελ. 437.17–20). As noted by the Most Reverend. Amphilochius (Radovich): “The entire theological speculation of St. Gregory is predominantly anthropological, even if this is not visible at first glance" [Ράντοβιτς Α. Το μυστήριον ... Σελ . 45). Book of Enoch the Righteous / Trans. S. S. Averintsev [according to the edition: Le livre des secrets d’Hénoch. Texte slave et traduction française par A. Vaillant. 2-me ed. Paris, 1976] // From the shores of the Bosphorus to the shores of the Euphrates. M., 1987. P. 116.. Riesenfeld H. Jésus transformé. P. 109–110, cf.: p. 100–108, 112. In particular, on p. 112 we read: “...la notion de lumière en général était trop intimement associée à tout ce qui concerne l’idée de Dieu, la théologie et l’eschatologie juives...”. A similar – apparently universal – perception of light is characteristic of Greek culture from its origins, cf.: Beierwaltes W. LUX INTELLIGIBILIS. Untersuchung zur Lichtmetaphysik der Griechen. München, 1957. All the more strange are the attempts of some scientists to declare the Light of Tabor as created and material and even to link the theology of the light of St. Gregory Palamas with... the spread of Western theology, more than Byzantine, focused on the earthly, material world (Onasch K. Das Problem des Lichtes in der Ikonenmalerei Andrej Rublevs. Zur 600-Jahrfeier des grossen russischen Malers 1960. Berlin, 1962. S. 11–12; in the same spirit: Bréhier L. Le monde byzantine. T. 3. La civilization byzantine. Paris, 1970. P. 368; Sources unanimously indicate the opposite. Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 160.67.2–3. Ibid. P. 66.4–5; PG. 151.220A. Such “creatures of perfect Light (τελείου φωτὸς γεννήματα)” (356C) were, in particular, the Apostles Peter and Paul. The origins of the doctrine of the common glory of God and the saints are discernible in St. Maximus the Confessor, who wrote: “... brought into a spiritual relationship with the entirety of God, thanks to faith you inevitably go to the communion of goods in vision (ἐν εἴδει); the manifestation of this [sacrament] is deification...” (Canart P. La deuxième lettre à Thomas de S. Maxime le Confesseur // Byz. 1964. Vol. 34. Fasz. 2. P. 429.1.19–21). Sinkewicz R. E. Introduction... P. 50. Flogaus R. Palamas and Barlaam Revisited... P. 28. R. E. Sinkewicz also agrees with this dating (Sinkewicz R. E. Introduction... P. 50). Flogaus R. Der heimliche Blick nach Westen... S. 294. Meyendorff John. Letter to Akindinos from Saint Gregory Palamas // Idem. Byzantine Hesychasm. IV. C. 116; see other works from this collection. Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 158.64.4–5. This side of Palamas's views is especially emphasized by Greek scientists. See: Μαντζαρίδης G. I. Ορθόδοξος πνευματικότης ... Σελ. 56, 59–61; Mantzarides G.I. The Definition of Man. P. 103; Romanides J. Notes... P. 267–268. Compare: Makarov D. I. The place of anthropological ideas... Section 2.3 and 2.4. pp. 232–239. About him, see: Sidorov A.I. The problem of “single action” in Anastasius I of Antioch: (on the issue of creating ideological prerequisites for Monothelite disputes) // BS. 1989. Vol. 50/1; Gratsiansky M. V. Anastasius I of Sinaite // Orthodox Encyclopedia. T. 2. P. 243. This refers to the Eighth Day, as Palamas himself says: ἰδοὺ νῦν ἡμέρα σωτηρίας (437Α). Wed: apostles on Mount Tabor, τῆς ἡμέρας Κυοίου γεγονότος υἱούς, ἰδόντας τε καὶ παθόντας τὸ θεῖον ἐκεῖνο κάλλος ·( Ὅτι Βαρλαὰμ καὶ Ἀκίνδυνος ... // ΓΗΣ . 2. Σελ .. Αυτόθι. Σελ. 678.473–474. Saint Gregory the Sinaite. Discourse... P. 680.478–480. Guillou A. Le monastère de la Théotokos au Sinaï // Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire. 1955. Vol. 67. P. 238.13–242.22. See, for example, about this term: Sidorov A.I. Comments // Works of St. Maximus the Confessor. T. 1. P. 268. Note. 12. Meyendorff J. St. Gregory Palamas and Orthodox Spirituality. P. 171–172. ... (PG. 89. 1369Β). This refers to Moses and Elijah, whose transfiguration the author affirms a little earlier, saying: Εἰ μὴ γὰρ συμμεταμορφοθῶσιν, οὐ συλλαλοῦσ ι (Ibid. 1369Α). It would be interesting to compare the teaching of St. Maximus the Confessor that Christ on Tabor became His own symbol: αὐτὸν ἑαυτοῦ σύμβολον γενέσθαι (PG. 91. 1166D). Quote by: Meyendorff I. F. Life and works... P. 268 (Meyendorff J. Introduction... P. 272). Can we talk here about at least an indirect influence of Anastasius on St. Maxim, or should some similarity of views be explained by borrowing from a common source (Pseudo-Areopagite)? This approach is presented, in particular, in a more popular than scientific monograph, which does not affect the teachings of Palamas: Habra G. La Transfiguration selon les Peres grecs. Paris, 1973. P. 47. For a correct understanding of the Transfiguration, one should keep in mind the difference between feology and oikonomia. From the point of view of feology, there is no and cannot be any transfiguration of Christ, since He is Light from eternity, or rather, He, like the Father and the Holy Spirit, has from eternity inherent uncreated Light, which is one of the energies of God. From the point of view of oikonomia, what happened was precisely the Transfiguration: the glory of Christ, previously invisible in the world as the Second Person of the Holy Trinity, for a brief moment became clear to the apostles, i.e., a change occurred, but only in God’s relationship to the world: Christ for the first time since the beginning of the economy of salvation appeared to the apostles differently than He appeared before, i.e., He did not change τρόπος τῆς ὑπάρξεως, but only a way of manifestation of this tropos, its ἔκφανσις. Τῆς μέντοι κατὰ νοῦν καὶ θείας ἀπολαύσε ὡς καὶ ἡδονῆς ἀμερίστῳ μεριζομένης, κἂν εἰ πάσης δεκτικός τις γένοιτο, τοὺς ἄλλους οὐ παραβλάπτει· ·(420С). Let us note in this passage the use of the word ἡδονή in a positive sense: by renouncing lower pleasures, a person, according to the saint, transfers all his rejoicing to the sphere of the Divine. The features of apophaticism and deliberate paradox that appear in the language are intended to serve to clarify the same, remaining central, position of the teaching and life work of Palamas: a living and personal meeting with God is possible and accessible for a person. The teacher of silence takes care to lay a theological foundation for explaining the possibility of this meeting, which, from an experienced point of view, did not raise a shadow of doubt in him. Method of sacred prayer and attention... P. 20; Hausherr I., S. J. La Méthode... P. 159.15–17. Translated by A. G. Dunaev - “diligence in prayer”: The method of sacred prayer and attention... P. 25; Hausherr I.,S. J. La Méthode... P. 167.18–19. Hausherr I., S. J. La Méthode...P. 170.16–17. Ἐπὶ μὲν τῶν λογικοτέρων, ἡ θεωρία προηγεῖται τῆς πράξεως . Eliae Ecdici Gnosticae sententiae // PG. 127. 1160Α. 57). The place of Elijah Ekdik in the tradition of hesychasm was pointed out by A. I. Sidorov (Sidorov A. I. Evagrius of Pontus: life, literary activity and place in the history of Christian theology // Works of Abba Evagrius. P. 65). St. Elijah represents the link between St. Simeon the New Theologian and St. Nikita Stiphatus, on the one hand, and St. Theoliptus of Philadelphia and both Gregori - Sinait and Palamas, on the other; at the same time, he is closer precisely to the line of Theoliptus - Palamas (cf. his characteristic theoreticalness, contemplation, etc.). St. Elijah Ekdik was remembered on Athos in the 14th century, as evidenced by a quotation from his works (attributed to him?) in the 54th chapter of the “Centuries” of Sts. Callista and Ignatius Xanthopouls, who, in turn, strictly follow the instructions of St. Nikephoros the Hesychast. See: Ivanka E. von. Plato Christianus. P. 400–401; Wed entire paragraph on hesychasm (pp. 397–402). However, von Ivanka does not distinguish between the essential illumination of the mind in Neoplatonism (and in Evagrius) and Christian deification by grace, which somewhat reduces the value of his analysis. Moreover, the assumption shared by him with other scientists of the old school (for example: Nölle W. Hesychasmus und Yoga // BZ. 1954. Bd. 47. Hf. 1. S. 95–103) about the influence of yoga practice on hesychasm in the light of today’s knowledge should be recognized as outdated and not corresponding to reality. See: Lurie V. M. Note 25 // Meyendorff I.F. Life and works... P. 196. See: Reverend Father Abba John, Abbot of Mount Sinai, Ladder, in Russian. lane, with alphabetical index. St. Petersburg, 1996. P. 60, 109, 234; St. Maximus the Confessor. Chapters about love. 63 // Works of St. Maximus the Confessor. T. 1. P. 141; St. John of Damascus. Homily on the glorious Transfiguration... // PG. 96. 561B (see below - this place is extremely important for understanding Palamas’ teaching on prayer); Nicephori Monachi Tractatus de sobrietate et cordis custodia // PG. 147.951 A; Triads. 1.3.46: hesychast “...connects his mind with unceasing prayer to God...”. (ΓΠΣ–1. Σελ. 457.46.31). Compare: “Hesychia is the conversion and gathering of the mind into oneself. Especially... the appeal to the godfather of all spiritual powers and their action according to the mind and according to God" (Life of St. Peter of Athos. Quoted from: Cyprian (Kern), archimandrite. Anthropology... P. 325). Staniloae D. Viaţa şi invăţătura sfantului Grigorie Palama. P. 43, 60. PG. 58. 554. Judging by the topic characteristic of Chrysostom (criticism of moneylenders and calls to help the poor), which appears at the end of the homily, the creation is still genuine. Compare: Leloir L. L’homélie d’ Elišē sur la montagne du Thabor // Revue des Études Arméniennes. 1986–1987. N. S. Vol. 20. P. 207 - in the characteristic context of describing the life of the monks: “...ils ont demeuré en hésychia sur cette montagne, afin que...ils puissent être élevés jusqu’aux hauteurs celestes, près de leur Maître...”. Kulkova N. A. About the author of “The History of Egyptian Monks” // History of Egyptian Monks... P. 89. Having examined the problem raised in the title of the article, the author comes to the conclusion that the treatise was written by an unknown monk of the monastery on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem (Ibid. P. 94). History of Egyptian monks. 1. pp. 21–22. See also: Ancient Patericon... pp. 28–29. Descriptions of this kind are repeated almost verbatim in Climacus (Ladder... P. 120:234); Wed also “Other chapters” by Rev. Gregory of Sinaita and other works of monastic writing. Sachot M. L'homélie pseudo-chrysostomienne sur la Transfiguration CPG 4724, BHG 1975. Contextes liturgiques, restitution à Léonce, prêtre de Constantinople, édition critique et commentée, traduction et études connexes. Frankfurt am Main; Bern, 1981. (Publications Universitaires Européennes. Sér. XXIII. Théologie, 151). P. 26–28. According to V. M. Lurie, “The history of the Feast of the Transfiguration remains one of the most mysterious issues of historical eortology” (Lurie V. M. Avva George of Sagly and the history of Julianism in Ethiopia. Remarks on recent publications // XV. T. 1(7). P. 347. Note 76). As a working hypothesis, we can use the hypothesis of S. Renu, according to which the holiday originates in Palestine, in the immediate vicinity of Jerusalem, in 440–550. (Renoux Ch. La fête de la Transfiguration et le rite arménien // Mens concordet voci. Pour Mgr A. G. Martimort à l’occasion de ses 40 années d’enseignement et des 20 ans de la Constitution “Sacrosanctum Concilium”. Paris, 1983. P. 659). See Nikifor's definitions of attention: PG. 147. 961В–962А (including: ἀρχὴ θεωρίας... ἀταραξία νοός); cit. from the "Epistle to the Monks" in Italian. lane A. Rigo see: Rigo A. L’epistola... R. 201. For prayer, see the commandment of the apostle: “Pray without ceasing” (προσεύχεσθε ἀδιαλείπτως) (1 Thess. 5:17; cf. 1 Pet. 4:7). Wed. about “mental unity with God” in 432A; Wed translation of this passage above. This love was and is the common property of three Persons, as if they were a gift to each other. It is given to creation by grace, and a person can join these streams of grace. The extent of the fulfillment of this gift of love is unknown to us: it is possible that in the final salvation the righteous will be able to partake of the love that the Divine Persons have for each other. Compare: Saint Gregory Palamas. The One Hundred and Fifty Chapters. P. 122.36.11–15. Ράντοβιτς Α. Το μυστήριον ... Σελ . 171–172. Acquaintance with this section of the Filioque (pp. 143–176), as well as with the following one, “The Distinction of Essence and Energies” (pp. 176–201), is very important for understanding Palamas’s thought. Wed. at St. Maxim: “...the mind, nakedly conversing with God, becomes god-like” (A Word on Ascetic Life // Creations... Vol. 1. P. 83). St. also speaks about the enlightenment of human nature through continuous prayer. Theoleptos of Philadelphia in “Catechetical Address...”: Theoleptos of Philadelpheia. The Monastic Discourses... P. 186.3–188.4. Even in Elisha we encounter these motifs: Leloir L. L'homélie... P. 193.20. Wed. expressions of Palamas himself about the deification of the mind: Triads. 2. 3.57 (ΓΠΣ–Ι. Σελ. 591; Russian translation: p. 245). Rev. John Climacus. Ladder. P. 249.17. In turn, St. Callistus Angelicud prefers to say that we “glorify” with Christ and “become conformed to the glory” of Him (σύμμορφοι τῆς δόξης γινόμεθα) (see: Παπαδοπούλου Σ. Συνάντησις ... Σελ . This is even more true for the final eschatological state. Another, and, moreover, very striking example of the use of this word in a positive, eschatological meaning. Designation of Paradise: Luke 13:28; 16:19–31 (esp. 16:22); Wed: John 1:18. Wed. teaching of St. Gregory of Nyssa, expressed in the Fifteenth Discourse of the Explanation of the Song of Songs (Russian translation: pp. 445–478). See: Prokhorov G. M. Works of David Disipata... P. 33; Jevtić A. Rencontre de la scolastique et de l’hesychasme dans l’oeuvre de Nilus Cabasilas // L’art de Thessalonique... P. 151. For a typical example of the confrontation between Christocentric and spiritualistic tendencies in early monasticism, see: Florovsky G. The anthropomorphites in the Egyptian desert // Akten des XI. Internationalen Byzantinistenkongresses. München, 1958 / Hrsg. F. Dölger und H.-G. Beck. München, 1960. S. 154–159, bes. 156–159. On “realized eschatology” in this regard, see the remark of G. Mantzarides: Mantzarides G. I. The Deification of Man. P. 123, where this phrase is applied to Palamas’ interpretation of the Transfiguration.. Meyendorff J. Palamas (Grégoire) // Dictionnaire de spiritualité ascétique et mystique. Doctrine et histoire. Paris, 1983. Fasz. LXXVI-LXXVII. Col. 90. The article contains valuable information about homily. [...preserved in numerous manuscripts, it forms an important element of his legacy from a historical and theological point of view. His personality appears there as that of a shepherd, directly interested in the daily life of God's people, in social justice and civil peace, very different from the more academic and intellectual mentality of his opponents. References to hesychasm are rare (my italics - D.M.), there is almost no polemic. However, there is no contradiction between this pastoral activity and his theological works, for it was his church experience that he intended to defend in his various writings...]. τὴν ἱερὰν ἡσυχίαν εὑρίσκει χειραγωγόν (Econ. P. 170). Hausherr I., S. J. La Méthode... R. 152. 13–14. Philotheus preserved in his Encomia the following teaching of Palamas: Μνημονευτέον Θεοῦ, φησὶ, μᾶλλον ἢ ἀναπνευστέον ... (573C). Here is also a teaching about continuous prayer - exactly the same as we find in the Fortieth Homily. I quote from: Παναγιωτοπούλου Ἰ. Ἀ. Ἡσυχαστικὰ στοιχεῖα στὶς Ἀποκρίσεις τοῦ οἰκουμενίκοῦ πατριάρχου Ἰερεμία Β’ τοῦ Τρανοῦ // Θεολογία . 1997. T. 68. Τεύχη 1–2. Σελ. 329. I sincerely thank I.P. Medvedev for the opportunity to familiarize myself with this article. We do not have the opportunity here to enter into the textual study of the works of the Venerable Simeon the New Theologian, but we point out that his Eighteenth Word (in the Russian translation from the modern Greek Theophan the Recluse) contains the same position that interests us: “Good is no longer good, unless it is done well...” (Words of the Venerable Simeon the New Theologian. Translated into Russian from the modern Greek by Bishop Theophan. M., 1892 2. Issue 1. P. 169). Whatever the original text, this makes us listen to the opinion of V. M. Lurie that it was Simeon the New Theologian who was the author of the “Method...” (Lurie V. M. Comments // Meyendorff I. F. Life and Works... P. 417). For an opposite opinion, see: Rigo A. Niceforo I'Esicasta (XIII sec.): alcune considerazioni sulla vita e sull'opera... P. 93. In any case, the point in the dispute has not yet been set. Father Gregory (Lurie) dedicated his recent book to the origin of these two ideas - virginity and living apart from people. See: Lurie V. M. The Calling of Abraham... Esp. With. 12–16. Wed. about Christ: αὐτοῦ (277С). Conversely, a Christian ascetic is often described as ἄσαρκος. See about Palamas in Philotheus: εἴ τις ἄσαρκος (PG. 151. 568A); in the Nile: ὣσπερ ἄσαρκός τις (Ibid. 661C). (497D–500A). Θεῷ μόνῳ ζῶν, Θεὸν μόνον ὀρῶν, Θεὸν τρυφὴν οἰκείαν ποιούμενος. Note that the word τ ρυφή often appears in Palamas in negative contexts, meaning “satiety”, “luxury”. Here is one example: Τί δὲ τῶν κατασεσαρκομένων [Gen.6:3] ἔργον; οὐ γαστριμαργία καὶ μέθη καὶ τρυφὴ, καὶ τὰ ἐκ τούτων κακά (Hom. 6 // 85Β). Τρυφή here means “satiation.” For in the case of St. Philotheus and Nile, hagiographer and encomiast - one person. And what life does not include indispensable praise to the saint? Valuable experience in the structuralist study of relevant topics on Slavic material of the 14th–15th centuries. see: Alissandratos Yu. A. Traces of patristic types of praise in the Life of Stephen of Perm // Old Russian literature. Source study / Answer. ed. D. S. Likhachev. L., 1984. S. 64–74; Wed on hesychast material: Ivanova-Konstantinov. Cl. Some points on the Bulgarian-Byzantine literary inserts of the XIV century. (Hesychasm and Negoto penetrated into Bulgaria) // Old Bulgarian literature. 1971. Book. 1. pp. 209–242; especially about hagiography: p. 22 2–232. It is well known that the so-called style of “weaving words” was closely related to late Byzantine and Slavic hesychasm. Encomium auct. Nilo SR. // 663D.661D. S. Gregorii Nyssen i De Vita Moysis. Liber II. 401 M. 17–18 // Gregorii Nysseni Opera. Vol. VII. Pars 1. De Vita Moysis / Ed. H.Musurillo. Leiden, 1964. P. 112. Cf. about the problem ἐπέκτασις: Polemis I. D. Theophanes of Nicaea. P. 107, where one of the similar passages in the works of St. Gregory Palamas. Cf. the same expression ὑπὲρ ἄνθρωπον in the Word on the Transfiguration of the Lord by St. Gregory of Sinaïte, where it is intended to characterize the Incarnation of Christ: “God became man in a superhuman way (ὑπὲρ ἄνθρωπον)” [Saint Gregory the Sinaïte. Discourse on the Transfiguration... Σελ . 650.113–652.114). See: Meyendorff J. Le thème du “retour en soi” dans la doctrine palamite du XIV e siècle // Idem. Byzantine Hesychasm...; etc. Μὴ ὅλην τὴν σχολὴν περὶ τὴν σάρκα ἔχε, ἀλλ ὅσον αὐτὴν κατὰ δύναμιν περὶ τὴν ἄσκησιν, καὶ ὅλον τὸν νοῦν σου περὶ τὰ ἔνδον στρέψον (Hesychii Presbyteri Ad Theodulum sermo compendiosus animae perutilis, de Temperantia et Virtute quae dicuntur ἀντιῤῥητικὰ καὶ εὐκτικὰ, hoc est, de ratione reluctandi atque precandi // PG 93. 1504B. This teaching is in the tradition of St. Anthony, who instructed the brethren: “... all care must be taken more for the soul, and not for the body, and the body should give up a little time when necessary, but devote the rest especially to the soul and seek its benefits...” (Quoted from the Russian translation: St. Athanasius of Alexandria. Creations. M., 1994. T. 3. P. 215). Hausherr I. La méthode... R. 164.10 et suiv.: ... τὸν τόπον τῆς καρδίας ... ... τῆς ῥινὸς τὴν ὁδὸν ... (Nicephori Monachi Tractatus de sobrietate et cordis custodia // PG. 147. 963B). τα τής αγάπης ιερά βασίλεια . See: Arseny, ep. Saint Gregory Palamas, Metropolitan of Thessalonica, three creations... P. 11. Wed. ibid: ὁ νοῦς ... αὐτός τε πρὸς ἑαυτὸν καὶ τὰς ἄλλας τῆς ψυχῆς δυνάμεις ὁλοκλήρως ἐπιστρέψας ... (p. 12). Theoleptos of Philcidelpheia. The Monastic Discourses. MD1. P. 94.15.177–178. Wed. line 179: τοητοῦ ἡλιου Χριστοῦ τὰ δῶρα ταῦτα ... ... ἔνθα ἐμφιλοχωρεῖν πεφύκασι πᾶσαι αἱ ψυχικοὶ δυνάμεις ... (Hausherr I. La méthode... P. 164. 20–21). On the biblical understanding of the heart, see the valuable work: P. D. Yurkevich. The heart and its meaning in the spiritual life of man, according to the teaching of the Word of God // Him. Philosophical works. M., 1990. P. 69–103 (first publication: TKDA. 1860. No. 1. P. 63–118). Staniloae D. Prière de Jésus et expérience du Saint-Esprit. P. 42. Whereas Luke, when describing the corresponding episode, gives a different formula: ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἐκλελεγμένος (Luke 9:35). But it is noteworthy that after this Palamas chooses precisely Luke’s version (see below). (504Β). Φιλοδοξία is named among the temptations of St. Antonia: Vita Antonii // St. Athanase d'Alexandrie. Vie d’Antoine / Intr., texte critique, notes et index par G. J. M. Bartelink. Paris, 1994. (SC, 400). P. 142. 5. 7. From the teachings of St. Hesychia cf. Caput 173, where κενοδοξία is called the main obstacle to the contemplation of the Light of God: PG. 93. 1536С. This is precisely, according to Pertusi, the date of writing this wonderful work (Pertusi A. La concezione politica e sociale dell’impero di Giustiniano // Storia delle idee politiche, economiche e sociali / Diretta da L. Firpo. Torino, 1983. P. 542). ... Agapeti diaconi ... Capita admonitoria ... Caput XXXIII // PG. 86 / 1.1173). Wed. at Palamas: 40B; etc. See, for example: Thunberg L. Microcosm and Mediator. The theological anthropology of Maximus the Confessor. Copenhagen; Lund, 1965. P. 224 sq. St. Maximus especially emphasizes that Christ did not have a sinful (γνωμική) will, because His human will freely submitted to the will of the Son. See: Larchet J.-C. La pensée de Saint Maxime le Confesseur dans les “Questions à Thalassios” // Le Messager orthodoxe. 1990. Vol. 113. P. 14 et suiv., esp. 17. On Palamas's attitude to icons, see: Rigo A. Monaci... R. 248–250,253. However, the author is based primarily on evidence external to Palamas’ theology. An article analyzing the climate of the era as a whole is also important: Featherstone J. An Iconoclastic Episode in the Hesychast Controversy // JÖB. 1983. Bd. 33. S. 179–198. But Featherstone also says nothing about the alleged iconoclasm of Palamas. Moreover, the expression ὑπὲρ ἀρετῆς ἀγωνιζόμενος ἀπετμήθη τὴν κεφαλήν is repeated twice by Palamas within one paragraph (509A C. 13–14 from above and 509В С. 25–26 from above). ... οἱ μὲν τὴν ἔρημον ὤκησαν ... οἱ δὲ περιτειχίσμασιν ἱεροῖς ἐνασκήσαντες ... (512Α). On the coexistence of both paths among Athonite monasticism, see: Meyendorff J. St. Grégoire Palamas et la mystique orthodoxe. P. 77–81 (English translation: St. Gregory Palamas and Orthodox Spirituality. P. 73–75). Palamas himself experienced the contradiction between these paths: “But the love of hesychia and solitude did not allow Gregory to remain there (in the Great Lavra. - D.M.) in complete peace, why, having left the Lavra and everything in it, after three years [staying in it], ... went into the desert close to [his heart] (εἰς ἐρημίαν τὴν φίλην)" (Encomium auct. Philotheo CP. // 568AB). See: S. Gregorii Nysseni Ad Harmonium, quid nomen professione christianorum sibi velit // PG. 46. ​​244C: ... In Palamas this theme sounds constantly: 132С, 161В, 164D–165А, 196С; etc. Recently Fr. Gerhard Podskalski, O.I., convincingly showed the fallacy of V.N. Lossky’s opinion that the idea of ​​imitation of Christ is alien to the Eastern Church. See: Podskcilsky G. Mönch und Tod in Byzanz... On the contrary, in Origenism, the goal of prayer is “de-Christologization,” a consistent and complete ascent from the Son to the Father and repulsion from the historical Jesus. See: Bolotov V. V. Lectures on the history of the Ancient Church. M., 1994. T. 2. P. 324; Florovsky G. The anthropomorphites in the Egyptian desert // Akten des XI. Internationalen Byzantinistenkongresses/Hrsg. F. Dölger und H.-G. Beck. München, 1958. S. 154–159; and others (For the Russian translation of the latest work, see: G. Florovsky, Archpriest. Dogma and history...). Athanase d'Alexandrie. Vie d'Antoine [Intr., texte critique, trad., notes et index par G. J. M. Bartelink. Paris, 1994. (SC, 400)]. P. 178.16.4. Lurie V. M. The Calling of Abraham... pp. 50–51. That is, let us recall once again about the manifestations of God in creation or about the powers (energies) of God - wisdom, goodness, etc. S. Grégoire de Nysse. Vie de sainte Macrine / Intr., texte critique, trad., notes et index par P. Maraval. Paris, 1971. (SC, 178). P. 178.11.29–30. Wed. translation by P. Maraval: “la méditation des réalitésdivines...” (Ibid. P. 179). Wed: Hom. XXXVII. Here the Mother of God is described as πίναξ, εἰκών, σκηνή (469A, 468A). The style of Gregory Palamas in creating this kind of characterization has been likened to that of Gregory of Cyprus. Thus, the latter speaks of the righteous kings: ... ἀρετῆς ἀπάσης ἐναπελείφθησαν στῆλαι ... (“they were set up as pillars of all virtue”) (Rapp C. Ein bisher unbekannter Brief... S. 18. 221–222). This makes us think once again about the ideological similarity of the authors of the quoted characteristics. εἶδεν, ἔπαθεν, ἔφαγεν, ἀπέθανεν, ἔθελξε τὸν ἄνδρα ... (509D). οὐδὲ γὰρ τῶν ἐπὶ γῆς ἄλλων τούτων τοῦ Θεοῦ παραδείσων τὸ γνωστὸν καλοῦ καὶ πονηροῦ ξύλον ἄπεστιν ... (512Α). Cf. “περιτειχίσμασιν ἱροῖς” (Ibid.). Wed. teaching of St. Gregory of Sinaite on a double paradise - sensual and spiritual: PG. 150.1242. Recently, Reinhard Floghaus quite rightly emphasized that Palamas was a disciple of St. Theoliptus: Flogaus R. Palamas and Barlaam Revisited... P. 17. Sinkewicz R.E. A Critical Edition of the Anti-Arsenite Discourses of Theoleptos of Philadelpheia // MS. 1988. Vol. 50. P. 58.110–112 and 132–134. See Important Place: 261D–264A. This connection between the theme of virginity and spiritual warfare is traditional for monastic literature, about which, for example, see: Lurie V.M. Abraham's calling... Passim. Εκεῖνος τὴν κεφαλὴν ἀεὶ ἀπερικάλυπτον εἶχεν, ἀδιαλείπτου προσευχῆς τοῦτο δεῖγμα, καὶ τῆς πρὸς Θεὸν παῤῥησίας ἀκατάλυπτον γὰρ δεῖ τὸν ἄνδρα προσεύχεσθαι κατὰ τὴν τοῦ Ἀποστόλου φωνὴν, ὡς ἂν ἀνακεκαλυμμένῳ προσώπῳ τὴν δόξαν Κυρίου κατοπτριζώμεθα. (512BC). Wed. 1 Corinthians 11:7. The most accessible edition remains: PG. 96. 545–576. For the date, see: Esbroeck M. van. Une homélie géorgienne anonyme sur la Transfiguration // OCP. 1980. V. 46. P. 423. List of Byzantine homilies on the Transfiguration, compiled in the 3rd–14th centuries, see: Makarov D.I. The place of anthropological ideas... P. 226–229. In the 15th century the most important homily of St. Gennady Scholaria: Oeuvres complètes de George Scholarios publiées pour la première fois par Mgr L. Petit, X. A. Sidéridès, M. Jugie. T. 1. Paris, 1928. P. 149–161. Σήμερον γὰρ, φησὶ, φωτὸς ἀπροσίτου ἄβυσσος· σήμερον αἴγλης θείας χύσις ἀπεριόριατος ἐν Θαβὼρ τῷ ὄρειτοῖς ἀποστόλοις αὐγάζεται. (444A; cp.: PG. 96. 545Β). See also: Meyendorff John, prot. Byzantium and Muscovite Rus'. Ch. VI.4 // His own. History of the Church and Eastern Christian mysticism. P. 432; Makarov D. I. The place of anthropological ideas... P. 246, 248. Vasily (Grolimund), priest. Between hermitage and community life: monastery charter and cell rule. Their emergence, development and spread until the 16th century // Monastic culture: East and West. P. 123. For this and related ideas, see the summary of material in: Podskalsky G. Ruhestand oder Vollendung? Zur Symbolik des achten Tages in der griechischbyzantinischen Theologie // Fest und Alltag in Byzanz/ Hrsg. G. Prinzing and D. Simon. München, 1990. pp. 157–166 and 216–219. Palamas also has the idea of ​​the eighth day (see: 428BC). In addition, to the summary of Fr. Podskalski should add at least two passages from the Homily on the Transfiguration of St. Andreae of Crete - where he interprets the relationship between the numbers 6 and 8. See: S. Andreae Cretensis Oratio VII. In Transfigurationem Domini nostri Christi // PG. 97.940C–941A. About the dates of the life of St. Andrey see: Auzépy M.-F. La carrière d’André de Crete // BZ. 1995. Bd. 88/1. S. 4: ca. 660–740. ... καὶ ἀδιαλείπτου προσευχῆς συνιστάμενος ... (Theoleptos of Philadelpheia. The Monastic Discourses. MD2. P. 114.8.94–96; cf. translation R. E. Sinkevich: Ibid. 115). Διάνοια can (along with νοῦς) appear in similar contexts. Wed: ... πνευματικῇ καὶ θεοφιλεῖ διανοίᾳ (124CD). See below. According to the “Method of Sacred Prayer and Attention”, the second stage of improvement of a monk is ἡ τῆς ψαλμωδίας προσεδρία (cf. translation by Fr. I. Oser: l’assiduité à la psalmodie). It presupposes as its condition deliverance from passions, “because it is impossible to sing to the Lord on a foreign land, that is, from a heart overwhelmed by passions (ἐμπαθοῦς καρδίας)” (Hausherr I. La Méthode... P. 167.4–7). The necessity and benefit of psalmody for the intelligent work of a monk is one of the traditional themes of monastic literature. Of the works close to Palamas and created in line with his influence, cf. in particular: His Holiness Patriarch of Constantine-city Cyrus Philotheus Tradition to his disciple... P. 139–146, esp. 140–143. Compare: “The true service of God: singing, prayer, reading divine scriptures is not calculated by the measure of time or hours” (p. 140). The Old Russian version of this text is the only one known today. Accordingly, for this it is necessary to follow the advice of the “Method”: “...raise your mind (τὸν νοῦν) from everything perishable, that is, temporary (ματαίου ἤγουν προσκαίρου)” (Hausherr I. La Method... P. 164. 9–11). Cp. also: Guillaumont A. Les "Képhalaia gnostica" d'Evagre le Pontique et l'histoire de l'origénisme chez les Grecs et chez les Syriens. Paris, 1962; Meyendorff J. Le Christ dans la théologie byzantine. Paris, 1969. Ch. 3 (Russian translation: John Meyendorff, Archpriest Jesus Christ in Eastern Orthodox Theology. pp. 53–76). ... πάντα γίνεσθαι μετουσίᾳ, ὅσα φύσει πέφυκεν εἶναι Θεός (Encomium auct. Nilo SR. // 667А; ср.: 150. 944С; S. Maximi Confessoris De ambiguius // PG. 91. 1308B; Contos L. C . The essence-energies structure of Saint Gregory Palamas with a brief examination of its patristic foundation // GOTR. 1967–1968. Vol. 12. P. 283–294, esp. p. 294 and note 77. ἡ δὲ διὰ τῆς αὐτοῦ διηνεκοῦς προσγίνεται μνήμης καθαρούσης τὸν νοῦν. (512C). Rigo A. L’epistola ai monaci (e l’Epistola ad un igumeno) di uno Pseudo-Crisostomo: un trattato dell’orazione esicasta scritto nello spirito dello Pseudo-Macario // Studi e Ricerche sullOriente Cristiano. Anno VI. Fasz. 3. Roma, 1983. P. 197–215, spec. 207. Theoleptos of Philadelphia. The Monastic Discourses. MD1. P. 94.16.182. ... λαμπρότητας κομιζόμενος. (Ibid. P. 98. 20. 241–244; cf.: p. 116. 9. 108–109). Palamas can read: ... ἐπιφοίτησιν, τὸ τῆς θεώσεως αὐτῶν ὁρῶσιν ἔνδυμα . (Tr. 1.3.5 // ΓΠΣ–1. Σελ . 413. 20–24). Now we get to the main question! μνήμη γὰρ Θεοῦ θεωρία θεοῦ ἐστιν ... (Theoleptos of Philadelpheia. The Monastic Discourses. MD1. P. 94.16.185). Ibid. MD2. P. 116.9.102–103 See: 47A, 53D, 57C, 60B, 64A, 77A, 88A, etc. It seems apt to designate the three main stages of smart doing (according to Palamas), given by Andrew J. Sopko in his book on the theology of John Romanides: purification–illumination–glorification. See: Sopko A. J. Prophet of Roman Orthodoxy... Passim. ... πᾶσι ... ὁρωμένη, τοῖς δι’ἀγαθοεργίας ἀκριβοῦς, καὶ διὰ ? . (432Α). Compare: Theoleptos o f Philadelpheia. The Monastic Discourses. MD2. P. 114.8.94–96. ... συνάπτει τὸν νοῦν τῇ ἀδιαλείπτῳ πρὸς Θεὸν εὐχῇ, καὶ ... ἑαυτὸν γινόμενος. (Tr. 1.3.46–47 // ΓΠΣ–1. Σελ . 457.31–458.12). This side of Palamas's teaching is emphasized by Greek scholars (see § 7). Wed. such variants as κατὰ τὸ ἐγχωροῦν (S. Gregorii Palamae De oratione et puritate cordis capita tria // PG. 150. 1117B), κατὰ τὸ δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ (Nicephori Blemmydae Epitome logica // PG. 142. 723–724); etc. T[albot] A. M., K[azhdan] A. [R.] Athos, Mount // The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium / Alexander P. Kazhdan, Editor-in-Chief. N. Y.; Oxford, 1991. Vol. 1. P. 224. The further decline of desert dwelling (from the 11th–12th centuries) (cf.: Ibid. P. 225) can be attested to by the data of the Life of Gregory of Sinai: when he arrived on the Holy Mountain (no later than 1313–1314), there were only three monks there - Isaiah, Cornelius and Macarius, who were initiated into θεωρία, i.e. vision of God. They lived in the hermitages of Magula. See: Rigo A. La vita e le opere di Gregorio Sinaita...P. 582–584. See: Meyendorff J. St. Grégoire Palamaset la mystique orthodoxe. P. 83, 85–87 (English translation: St. Gregory Palamas and the Orthodox Spirituality. P. 75, 77, 79–80). Hausherr I. La Méthode... P. 164.6–7. (512D). Athanase d'Alexandrie. Vie d'Antoine. P. 218. 30.6–7. κἂν ταῖς εἰκονιζούσαις τὸν οὐράνιον χῶρον ταύταις ἐνοικῇ μοναῖς ... (513Β). Since ancient times, monastic life was designated as βίος ἀγγελικός. See examples: Ancient Patericon. P. 84: “angelic rank”; Wed in the same place: “...brought me back to this angelic life...”. Compare: S. Grégoire de Nysse. Vie de sainte Macrine. P. 176. From the tradition that directly influenced Palamas, it is necessary to mention the Rev. John Climacus, who taught: “The Silent One is the earthly image of an Angel...” (Venerable John Climacus. Ladder. P. 221.17). Back in the middle of the 16th century. Prince Kurbsky calls monasticism the “angelic image” (in the 2nd edition - “angelic image”). See: Kurbsky’s first message to Ivan the Terrible // Correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky / Text prepared by Y. S. Lurie and Yu. D. Rykov. M., 1993. P. 8, 10. At the risk of tiring the reader’s attention, we would nevertheless offer him another interesting parallel - this time from the Russian 17th century: according to the “New Chronicler”, when Theodore Nikitich Romanov (aka Patriarch Philaret) was tonsured a monk in the Siysky monastery by Boris Godunov, he “... by will and with great joy and a pure heart the angelic image perception (our italics - D. M.), and living in the monastery in fasting and in prayer" (quoted from: Demkova N. S. Works of writers of Avvakum’s circle and journalism of the Time of Troubles: (Towards the formulation of the problem) // Her. Works of Archpriest Avvakum and journalistic literature of the early Old Believers. Materials and research. St. Petersburg, 1998. P. 236). Polyakovskaya M. A. Monastic properties in Thessalonica and its suburban region in the XIV - first half of the XV centuries. // ADSV. 1965. Issue. 3. P. 22. Ηrochova V. Zur wirtschaftlichen Rolle der byzantinischen Klöster im 13–15. Jahrhundert // JÖB. 1982. Bd. 32/2. S. 91. Encomium auct. Nilo SR // 663CD; cp: 673ВС, 675А). ... δεικνὺς τὴν νέκρωσιν τῶν παθῶν ἐν τῷ σώματι περιφέρων (in the words of Palamas about the Forerunner - 512D). Philotheus recognizes Palamas's love of silence and solitude (ὁ τῆς ἡσυχίας καὶ τῆς μονώσεως ἔρως) (Encomium auct. Philotheo SR. // 568AB). See: Mark 1:2 (with reference to Mal.3:1); Matthew 11:10; Luke 1:76; Luke 7:27. Isaiah 40:3 is quoted in Matthew 3:3 and Luke 3:4. See, for example, the apparatus in: The Greek New Testament. Fourth Revised Edition/Ed. by B. Aland, K. Aland et al. Stuttgart, 1994. S. 117, 199. Cf.: Podskalsky G. Mönch und Tod in Byzanz. S. 221–227. So, on p. 221 we read: “Wenn überhaupt irgendetwas in der christlichen Todesbetrachtung neu sein muß, dann ist es die notwendige Relation jedes individuellen Todes zum einmaligen Kreuzestod Jesu Christi.” Ἀληθῶς! [ Really! ] For example: Ὁμιλία εἰς τὸ τῆς ἑκτῆς τοῦ Λουκᾶ κυριακῆς εὐαγγέλιον ... // Arseny, ep . St. Gregory Palamas, Metropolitan of Thessaloniki, three creations... P. 53. At the present stage of homiletics research, it would be extremely important to know to which specific group of listeners (parishioners of a particular church, monks, pilgrims, etc.) a particular sermon was preached. The large volume of the surviving corpus of homilies of St. Gregory Palamas gives grounds for distinguishing from it various types of homilies on this basis, although this has yet to be done. For a presentation of the methodology and early, promising results of this approach, see Mayer W. John Chrysostom and his Audiences: Distinguishing different congregations at Antioch and Constantinople // Studia Patristica. Vol. 31/Ed. by E. A. Livingstone. Leuven, 1997, pp. 70–75. Meyendorff J. Introduction à l’étude de Grégoire Palamas. P. 30–33, 203 (A Study of Gregory Palamas. N. Y., 1998. P. 17–20:140); Wed also about “Three Chapters on Prayer and Purity of Heart” (PG. 150. 1117–1121): “...ce bref opuscule se situe dans la tradition classique de l’hésychasme” (Idem. Palamas (Grégoire) // Dictionnaire de Spiritualité. P. 86); Wed our analysis: Makarov D. I. The teaching of Gregory Palamas on the purification of man (based on the treatise “Three Chapters on Prayer and Purity of Heart”) and some parallels in late Byzantine mysticism // World of Orthodoxy. Volgograd, 2000. pp. 62–63.66. Lurie V. M. The Calling of Abraham... P. 10. See especially: Mayer W. John Chrysostom: Extraordinary Preacher, Ordinary Audience // Preacher and Audience. Studies in Early Christianity and Byzantine Homiletics / Ed. by M. B. Cunningham and P. Allen. Leiden; Boston; Köln, 1998, pp. 105–137.