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He who existed before the ages, Himself created the ages. The divine David says about him: from everlasting to everlasting you art (Ps. 89:3). And the divine Apostle: With Him also made the eyelids (Heb. 1, 2). However, you should know that the word century is meaningful: it means a lot. For the life of every person is called a century, and the time of a thousand years is also called a century. All present life is also called a century, and the future, endless after the resurrection, is also called a century (Matthew 12:32; Luke 20:35–36). A century again is not called time and not any part of time measured by the movement and flow of the sun, that is, composed of days and nights, but something that continues on a par with the eternal, as if some kind of temporary movement and extension that stretches alongside and at the same time that which is eternal. For what time is to the temporal, so is the age to the eternal. There are seven centuries of this world, that is, from the creation of heaven and earth to the general end and resurrection of people. For there is a private end - the death of everyone; but there is both a common and a perfect end, when there will be a general resurrection of people. And the eighth century is the future. Before the creation of the world, when there was no sun separating day from night, there was no measurable age; but there was, as it were, some temporary movement and extension that stretched next to and at the same time with that which was eternal. In this sense, there is only one century; in the same sense, God is called eternal, and even pre-eternal, for He created the age itself: because God is one only, being without beginning, He Himself is the Creator of everything, both centuries and all things. Speaking about God, I, of course, mean here the Father and His Only Begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, and His All-Holy Spirit, our One God 50 . They talk about “centuries of centuries” because the seven centuries of the present world contain many centuries, that is, many human lives, and about that one century, which, as said above, embraces all the centuries; also the “century of the century” refers to the present and future centuries. And eternal life and eternal torment signify the infinity of the future century. For time after the resurrection will no longer be counted in days and nights, or better yet, then there will be one non-evening day; since the Sun of righteousness will shine clearly for the righteous, but for the sinners there will come a deep, endless night. Therefore, how will the thousand-year time of Origen's restoration be calculated? So, God is the one Creator of all ages, as He created everything without exception and existed before the ages. Since the good and most good God was not content with contemplating Himself, but out of the abundance of His goodness He was pleased that something would happen that would benefit from His benefits and participate in His goodness, He brings from non-existent things into being, and creates everything, both visible and invisible, and also man, consisting of visible and invisible. He creates with thought, and this thought, carried out by the Word and accomplished by the Spirit, becomes deed 51. He Himself is the Creator and Creator of Angels, who brought from non-existence into existence and created them in His image, incorporeal in nature, similar to some spirit and immaterial fire, as the Divine David says: create your angels spirits, and your servants a fiery flame (Ps. 103:4), - describing their lightness and ardor, and ardor, and insight, and the speed with which they desire God and serve Him - their desire for things above and freedom from any material idea 52. So, an Angel is an entity endowed with intelligence, constantly moving, free, incorporeal, serving God, having received immortality for its nature by grace: only the Creator knows the form and definition of this entity. She is called incorporeal and immaterial in comparison with us. For everything in comparison with God, the only incomparable one, turns out to be both gross and material, because only the Divinity in the strict sense is immaterial and incorporeal. So, an Angel is a rational nature, endowed with intelligence and free will, changeable at will, that is, voluntarily changeable. For everything that is created is changeable; only that which is not created is unchangeable, and everything rational is endowed with free will. So, the angelic nature, as rational, gifted with intelligence, has freedom, and as created, it is changeable, having the power to both remain and succeed in good, and deviate towards evil. He is incapable of repentance because he is incorporeal. Man received repentance for the sake of the weakness of the body 53. He is immortal not by nature, but by grace; for everything that had a beginning by nature also has an end. God alone is ever-present, or rather, He is above eternity, for the Creator of times is not dependent on time, but is above time. Angels are the second lights, intelligent, borrowing their light from the first and beginningless Light, having no need for language and hearing, but without a spoken word communicating their thoughts and decisions to each other. Further, all Angels were created through the Word and achieved perfection from the Holy Spirit through sanctification, becoming partakers of light and grace according to their dignity and rank 54 . They are describable: for when they are in heaven, they are not on earth, and when sent by God to earth, they do not remain in heaven, but they are not held back by walls, doors, bars, or seals. Because they are unlimited. I call them unlimited because, appearing according to the will of God to worthy people, they are not what they are in themselves, but are transformed in accordance with how those who look can see them. For by nature and in the proper sense only the uncreated is unlimited, for every creature is determined by God who created it. They have sanctification from the outside, and not from their own being - from the Spirit; prophesy by the grace of God; have no need for marriage, since they are not mortal. Since they are minds, they are also in places that are comprehended only by the mind, not being described in a corporeal way - for by nature they do not take on the form of a body and a threefold dimension - but in that they are spiritually present and act where they are commanded, and cannot be here and there at the same time and act. Whether they are essentially equal or different from each other, we do not know. Only God, who created them, knows, and He knows everything. They differ from each other in light and position; either having a degree according to the light, or participating according to the degree in the light, and enlighten each other due to the superiority of rank or nature. But it is clear that the higher Angels communicate both light and knowledge to the lower ones 55 . They are strong and ready to fulfill the divine will and, due to the speed inherent in their nature, they immediately appear everywhere, wherever the divine signal commands; and protect the regions of the earth, and govern peoples and countries, as the Creator commanded them, and manage our affairs, and help us. In general, both by the will of God and by the determination of God, they are above us and always around God 56. They are inflexible to evil, although they are not inflexible, but now they are even inflexible - not by nature, but by grace and by attachment to the good alone 57. They contemplate God as far as is possible for them, and have this as food. Being above us, as incorporeal and free from all bodily passion, they, however, are not dispassionate, for only the Divine is dispassionate. They take on the image whatever the Lord God commands, and in this image they appear to people and reveal to them divine secrets. They live in heaven, and their only occupation is to sing songs to God and serve His divine will. As the holiest, most sacred and great in theology Dionysius the Areopagite says, all theology, that is, divine Scripture, names nine heavenly essences. The Divine Sacred Secret divides them into three threefold classes: the first, as he says, is always around God and, as is dedicated to him, is in the closest and immediate union with God - this is the class of six-winged Seraphim and many-eyed Cherubim, and the most holy Thrones. The second class contains the Dominions, Powers and Powers, and the third and last - the Principalities, Archangels and Angels. Some, of course, say that they received existence before any creature - just as Gregory the Theologian says: “first of all, God invents angelic and heavenly powers, and this thought became deed.” Others say that they occurred after the creation of the first heaven. Yet they agree that they were created before the creation of man. I agree with the Theologian: for it was necessary to create first of all the mental essence, then the sensory, and then from both the essence of man. Those who call Angels the creators of any essence are the lips of their father, the devil. For, as creatures, Angels are not creators. The Creator of everything, the Provider and Sustainer is God, the only uncreated one, sung and glorified in the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit 58. Chapter IV. About the devil and demons. Of these angelic forces, the angel who stood at the head of the supermundane rank 59 and to whom God entrusted the protection of the earth was not created evil by nature, but was good and created for good, and did not receive from the Creator even a trace of evil. But he could not bear the light and honor that the Creator bestowed upon him, but by autocratic will he turned from what is in accordance with nature to what is unnatural, and became proud against his Creator - God, wanting to rebel against Him, and was the first to depart from goodness and fell into evil. For evil is not anything other than the deprivation of good, just as darkness is the deprivation of light, for good is spiritual light; in the same way, evil is spiritual darkness. So, having been created by the Creator as light and having been good - for God saw everything that was created, and every good thing (Gen. 1:31) - he, by free will, became darkness. He was captivated by him, he was followed, and countless angels subordinate to him fell with him. Thus, they, having the same nature as the angels, became evil at will, willfully deviating from good to evil 60. Therefore, they have neither power nor strength against anyone unless they receive permission from God for the purposes of economy, as happened with Job and as it is written in the Gospel about the [Gadarene] pigs. With God's permission, they are strong, they accept and change the image they want, in accordance with their imagination. Neither the Angels of God nor the demons know, therefore, the future, but they predict: Angels - when God reveals to them and commands them to predict; that is why what they say comes true. Demons also predict - sometimes by seeing distant events, and sometimes only by guessing, which is why they often lie. You shouldn’t believe them, although, as we said, they often tell the truth. In addition, they know the Scriptures. So, all vices are invented by them, as well as unclean passions; and although they are allowed to tempt a person, they cannot force anyone; since it depends on us whether to withstand or not withstand their attack; therefore, the devil, his demons and his followers are destined for unquenchable fire and eternal torment. You need to know that the fall for angels is the same as death for people. For after the fall there is no repentance for them, just as it is impossible for people after death 61. Chapter V. About the visible creature. Our God Himself, glorified in Trinity and Unity, created heaven and earth, and everything that is in them (Ps. 145:6), bringing everything from non-existent into being: other substances that did not exist before, such as: heaven, earth, air, fire, water; and another of these substances already created by Him, such as animals, plants, seeds. For this, by command of the Creator, came from earth, water, air and fire. The sky is that which embraces creatures, both visible and invisible. For in it are contained and limited the powers of the angels, comprehended only by the mind, and everything sensible. The only thing indescribable is the Divine, Who fills everything and embraces everything and limits everything, since He is above everything and created everything. Since Scripture speaks of heaven and heaven of heaven (Ps. 113:24, 23), and of the heaven of heavens (Ps. 149:4), and blessed Paul says that he was caught up to the third heaven (II Cor. 12:2), then we affirm that at the general beginning of the world, as has been taught to us, that heaven was created which the pagan sages, having appropriated to themselves the teaching Moses is called the starless ball. God called the firmament heaven (Gen. 1:8), which He commanded to be in the middle of the water, destining it to separate between the water above the firmament and the water below the firmament. Divine Basil, according to the instructions of Holy Scripture, says that the nature of this heaven is subtle, like smoke. Others say that it had the appearance of water, since it was placed in the middle of water. Others say that it is composed of four elements. Some say that it is the fifth body, distinct from the other four 62 . Some believed that everything was surrounded by heaven, and that it, being spherical, formed the highest part for everything; the very middle of the space it embraces is the lowest part. Both light and moving bodies, according to this opinion, received from the Creator a place at the very top, while heavy bodies and those tending downward - at the very bottom, that is, in the middle. Of all the elements, the lightest and most tending (upwards) is fire, which is therefore said to be located directly behind the sky. This fire is called ether; behind the ether, below it, air is placed. Earth and water, as the heaviest elements and most tending downward, are placed in the very middle, so that they are opposite to each other, equally located at the bottom. However, water is lighter than earth, which is why it is more mobile than the latter. Thus, it turns out that air extends around the earth and water on all sides like a cover, the air is embraced on all sides by ether, and outside and around all this is the sky. On the one hand, they say that the sky moves in a circle and compresses everything that is inside it, and thus everything remains solid and does not fall apart. Moreover, they say that the sky has seven zones, one higher than the other, that it is a light substance, like smoke, and that in each zone there is one of the planets, for seven planets are usually recognized: the Sun, the Moon, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, Venus and Saturn. At the same time, by Venus they mean either the morning or the evening star. They are called planets because their movement is opposite to the movement of the sky; for while the sky and other stars move from east to west, some planets move from west to east. We can notice this by the moon, which moves back a little every evening 63. So, those who claim that the sky is spherical admit that it is at an equal distance from the earth, both above, on the sides and below. I say: from the sides and below, adapting to our sensory perception; for, from above, as can be seen from the previous, the sky everywhere occupies the highest place, and the earth the lowest. They also claim that the sky, like a ball, surrounds the earth and with its fastest movement rotates the sun, moon and stars; and when the sun is above the earth, it is day here, but when it is underground, it is night; when the sun sets underground, there is night here and day there. Others represented the sky in the form of a hemisphere, based on the words of the divinely inspired David: they stretched out the sky like a skin (Ps. 103:2), i.e., like a tent, and also on the words of blessed Isaiah: they set up the sky like a tent (Is. 40:22). Also because the sun, moon and stars, when setting, circle the earth from west to north and thus return to the east again. However, whether this is one way or another, everything happened and was approved by divine command and has as its unshakable basis the divine will and decision; like that speech, and it was. He commanded it, and it was created. I set it for the age, and for the age of the century: set the commandment, and it will not pass by (Ps. 149:5-6). The first heaven above the firmament is called the heaven of heaven. Thus, two heavens are obtained, since God called the firmament heaven (Genesis 1:8). The Holy Scripture usually calls the air the sky, since it is visible above, for the Scripture says: bless all the birds of the air (Dan. 3:80), meaning the birds of the air, for the path for the birds is the air, and not the sky. This is how we get the three heavens that the Divine Apostle spoke about (2 Cor. 12:2). And if someone wanted to take seven belts for seven heavens, then he would not have sinned at all. And in Hebrew the sky is usually called in the plural - heavens. Therefore, the Holy Scripture, meaning to speak about the heaven of heaven, says: heaven of heaven (Ps. 149:4), which means the heaven of heaven, that is, the heaven above the firmament. And in the words: water, which is above the heavens, heaven means either air and the firmament, or seven zones of the firmament, or one firmament, which in the Hebrew language is usually called heaven in the plural. According to the natural order of nature, everything, and therefore the heavens, is subject to destruction; but they hold on and are preserved by the grace of God. Only God is beginningless by nature - has no limit to existence; That’s why it is said: they will perish, but You remain (Ps. 101:27). However, the heavens will not completely disappear, for they will wear out and become wrinkled, like clothing, and will change (Ps. 101:27) and the heavens will be new and the earth will be new (Rev. 21:1). The sky is much greater than the earth, but we should not inquire what the essence of the sky is, for it is unknown to us. No one should assume that the heavens or luminaries are animated, for they do not have souls or feelings. Therefore, when the divine Scripture says: let the heavens rejoice, and let the earth rejoice (Ps. 95:11), it calls for rejoicing of the Angels in heaven and people on earth. Scripture uses personification and speaks of inanimate things as if they were animate, for example: the sea was seen, and the Jordan ran and returned; and further: why are you the sea, because you ran away; and to you Jordan, for you have returned back (Ps. 113:3,5). It asks both the mountains and the hills why they rejoiced (Ps. 113:4), just as we usually say: the city has gathered, meaning here not the buildings, but the inhabitants of the city. And the heavens will tell the glory of God (Ps. 18:2) not because they emit a voice that is perceived by bodily hearing, but because they, by their inherent greatness, show us the power of the Creator: contemplating their beauty, we glorify the Creator as the best artist 64. Chapter VII. About light, fire, luminaries, both the sun, the moon and the stars. Fire is one of the four elements; it is light, tends upward more than other elements, and has both the power to burn and the power of illumination. Fire was created by the Creator on the first day, for the divine Scripture says: And God said: let there be light: and there was light (Gen. 1, 3). Fire, according to some, is nothing more than light; however, others claim that the world fire - which they call ether - is located above the air. So, in the beginning, that is, on the first day, God created light - this is the decoration and adornment of the entire visible creation. In fact, take away the light - and everything will become indistinguishable in the darkness and will not be able to show its inherent beauty. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night (Gen. 1:5). Darkness is not any substance, but an accident. In fact, it is the deprivation of light, since the latter is not contained in the being of air. So, God called the very absence of light in the air darkness: it is not the substance of the air that constitutes darkness, but darkness is produced by the deprivation of light, which means an accident rather than a substance. And it was not the night that was called first, but the day, so that the day came first, and the night came after. Thus night follows day; and from the beginning of the day to the next day - one day; for the Scripture says: and there was evening, and there was morning, one day (Gen. 1:5) 65. During the first three days, day and night occurred, of course, due to the fact that the light, by divine command, either expanded or contracted. On the fourth day, God created the great luminary, that is, the sun in the beginning and the power of the day (Gen. 1, 16, 17), so thanks to him the day occurs: the day takes place when the sun is above the earth, and the length of the day is determined by the flow of the sun over the earth from sunrise to sunset. On the same day God created the lesser lights, that is, the moon and the stars, and the beginnings and power of the night (Gen. 1:16) to illuminate it. Night occurs when the sun is underground, and the duration of the night is determined by the course of the sun under the earth from sunset to sunrise. Thus, the moon and stars have the purpose of illuminating the night. However, even during the day, not all stars are underground; for even during the day there are stars in the sky above the earth, only the sun, hiding them along with the moon with its brighter brilliance, does not allow them to be seen 66. The Creator placed the first-created light into these luminaries. He did this not because He had no other light, but so that this first-created light would not remain unused; for the luminary is not the light itself, but the container of light 67 . Seven of these luminaries are called planets, claiming that they have a movement opposite to the movement of the sky - which is why they were called planets, that is, wandering, for the sky, they say, moves from east to west, while the planets move from west to east. However, since the movement of the sky is faster, it carries with it the seven planets with its rotational movement. The seven planets have the following names: Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. They say that in each celestial belt there is one of seven planets. In the first, uppermost, there is Saturn, in the seventh and lowest is the Moon. The planets carry out a continuous course, which the Creator appointed for them, and according to how He founded them, according to the word of the divine David: the moon and the stars, which You founded (Ps. 8:4); for with the words You founded, he designated the firmness and immutability of the order and movement given to him by God. In fact, He set them in seasons and in signs, and in days and in years (Gen. 1:14), for the four changes of the year come from the sun. The first change is spring, for in spring God created the whole world. This is indicated, by the way, by the fact that flowers still grow in the spring. Spring, further, is the equinoctial season, for then both day and night last twelve hours. Spring occurs when the sun rises in the middle of the east; it is distinguished by moderation, multiplies the blood, being warm and moist. It represents the transition from winter to summer, as it is warmer and drier than winter, but cooler and more humid than summer. This time of year lasts from March 21st to June 24th. Then, as the sun rises to the north, the summer change of year follows. It occupies a middle place between spring and autumn, combining both spring warmth and autumn dryness; for summer is a warm and dry season, conducive to the development of yellow bile. In summer there is a longest day, fifteen hours, and a very short night, lasting only nine hours. Summer lasts from June 24 to September 25. Then, when the sun again returns to the middle of the east, the summer season gives way to autumn, which in some way occupies a middle place between cold and warmth, dryness and humidity, and which constitutes the transition from summer to winter, combining in itself the dryness of summer and the cold of winter; for autumn is a cold and dry season, conducive to the development of black bile. Autumn is, again, the equinox season, when both day and night have twelve hours. Autumn lasts from September 25 to December 25. When the sun descends to its shortest and lowest rise, i.e. With the southern sunrise, the winter season begins, which is cold and wet and constitutes the transition from autumn to spring, combining autumn cold with spring humidity. In winter there is the shortest day, with nine hours, and the longest night, with fifteen hours. Winter lasts from December 25 to March 21. Thus, the Creator wisely arranged so that we, moving from extreme cold or heat, or humidity, or dryness to the other opposite extreme, would not fall into serious illnesses; for reason teaches that sudden changes are dangerous 68 . So the sun produces the seasons, and through them the year, as well as days and nights: days, rising and remaining above the earth, nights, hiding underground and giving way to the light of other luminaries - the moon and stars. It is said that in the sky there are twelve constellations, or signs of the zodiac, having a movement opposite to that of the sun and moon and the other five planets, and that seven planets pass through these twelve constellations. The sun takes one month to pass through each sign of the zodiac and within twelve months passes through twelve constellations. The names of the twelve zodiac signs and their corresponding months are as follows: Aries, the sun enters this sign in the month of March, 21 days. Taurus, the sun enters this sign in the month of April, 23 days. Gemini, the sun enters this sign in the month of May, 24 days. Cancer, the sun enters this sign in the month of June, 25 days. Leo, the sun enters this sign in the month of July, 25 days. Virgo, the sun enters this sign in the month of August, 25 days. Libra, the sun enters this sign in the month of September on the 25th day. Scorpio, the sun enters this sign in the month of October, 25 days. Sagittarius, the sun enters this sign in the month of November, 25 days. Capricorn, the sun enters this sign in the month of December, 25 days. Aquarius, the sun enters this sign in the month of January, 25 days. Pisces, the sun enters this sign in the month of February, 24 days. The moon passes through twelve constellations every month, since it is located lower and passes them faster; for just as if you draw a circle inside another circle, the circle lying inside will be smaller, so the course of the moon lying below the sun is shorter and occurs more quickly. The Hellenes say that all our affairs are governed by the rising, setting and approach of the stars, as well as the sun and moon; This is what astrology does. We, on the contrary, affirm that they give omens of rain and lack of rain, wet and dry weather, as well as winds and the like; but they are in no way omens of our actions. Indeed, we, created free by the Creator, are masters of our affairs. And if we do everything due to the flow of the stars, then what we do, we do out of necessity. What happens out of necessity is neither virtue nor vice. And if we have neither virtue nor vice, then we are unworthy of either rewards or punishments, just as God will turn out to be unjust, giving blessings to some and sorrows to others. Even more than that: since everything is led and driven by necessity, then there will be neither God’s government in the world, nor God’s providence for creation. Moreover, we will not need reason, for since we have no power in any action, then we do not need to think about anything. Meanwhile, reason is undoubtedly given to us to think through our actions, which is why every rational being is at the same time a free being 69 . Therefore, we affirm that the stars are not the cause of anything that happens in the world - neither the creation of what is emerging, nor the death of what is perishing, but rather serve as an omen of rains and changes in the air. Others may say that the stars are, if not the causes, then the omens of wars, and that the quality of the air, depending on the sun, moon and stars, produces in different ways different temperaments, habits and dispositions; but habits refer to what is in our will, for they are subject to reason and change under its direction 70 . Comets also often appear, which serve as certain signs, announcing, for example, the death of kings. Comets do not belong to those stars that were created at the very beginning, but, by divine command, are formed at the appropriate time and disintegrate again; for the star that appeared to the Magi during the humane and saving birth for us in the flesh of the Lord did not belong to those stars that were created in the beginning. This is clear from the fact that it flowed from east to west, then from north to south, that it was sometimes hidden, sometimes revealed. All this does not correspond to the laws and nature of stars 71. It should be noted that the moon borrows its light from the sun. This happens not because God was not able to give it his own light, but in order to impart to creation that harmony and order that exists when one is in charge and the other obeys, and also so that we learn to be in communication with each other, to share with others and to obey - to obey first of all the Creator, God the Creator and Master, and then to the rulers whom He has appointed; at the same time, we should not investigate why this one is in charge, and I am not in charge, but accept everything that comes from God with gratitude and complacency. Sometimes eclipses of the sun and moon occur, which exposes the madness of those who worship the creature more than the Creator (Rom. 1:25), and proves that the sun and moon are subject to transformations and changes. Yet everything that changes is not God, for everything that changes is perishable by nature. An eclipse of the sun occurs when the moon, becoming like an intermediate wall, gives a shadow and does not allow the light to be transmitted to us. Therefore, for as long as the moon covers the sun, the eclipse will last. One should not be surprised that the moon, being smaller than the sun, covers it; for some assert that the sun is many times greater than the earth, and the holy fathers consider it equal to the earth, and, however, it is often obscured by a small cloud or even an insignificant hill or wall. An eclipse of the moon occurs as a result of the earth's shadow, when the moon is fifteen days old and when the sun and moon are at opposite ends of a straight line passing through the highest center of the firmament - the sun below the earth and the moon above the earth. In this case, the earth casts a shadow and the sunlight does not reach the moon and illuminate it, which is why it is eclipsed. It should be borne in mind that the moon was created by the Creator as full, that is, as it appears on the fifteenth day of the lunar month, for it needs to be perfect. But on the fourth day, as we said, the sun was created. Therefore, the moon was eleven days ahead of the sun, for from the fourth day to the 15th there are eleven days. Therefore, in every year there are twelve lunar months with eleven days less than twelve solar months. In fact, twelve solar months have three hundred and sixty-five days and a quarter; and since the addition of quarters over four years produces one day, which is called a leap day, therefore that year has 366 days. On the contrary, lunar years have 354 days, since the moon, having been born or renewed, increases until it reaches the age of fourteen and three-quarters days; after this it begins to decrease until it is 29 days old, when it becomes completely dark. And then, connecting with the sun, it is reborn and renewed, giving us a reminder of our resurrection. It turns out that the moon lags behind the sun by eleven days every year. Therefore, among the Jews, after three years there is an intercalary month and the third year has thirteen months, due to the addition of eleven days each year. It is clear that the sun, the moon, and the stars are complex and by their nature subject to destruction. However, we do not know their nature. True, some say that fire, if it is not in any substance, is invisible, which is why, as soon as it is extinguished, it disappears; but others say that fire, when extinguished, turns into air 72 . The zodiac circle moves along an oblique line and is divided into twelve parts, called the signs of the zodiac. Each sign has thirty degrees, of which three are major, one in every ten degrees. A degree consists of sixty minutes. Thus, the sky has three hundred and sixty degrees, of which 180 degrees in the hemisphere located above the earth, and 180 degrees in the hemisphere located below the earth. Homes of the planets: Aries and Scorpio - home of Mars; Taurus and Libra - Venus; Gemini and Virgo - Mercury; Cancer - Moon; Leo - Sun; Sagittarius and Pisces - Jupiter; Capricorn and Aquarius - Saturn. Altitudes: Aries – Sun; Taurus - Moon; Cancer – Jupiter; Virgo - Mars; Libra - Saturn; Capricorn - Mercury; Pisces - Venus. Moon phases: conjunction - when it is in the same degree as the sun; birth - when she is fifteen degrees away from the sun; sunrise - when she appears; the crescent phase, which occurs twice, when the moon is 60 degrees away from the sun; two semicircular phases - when the moon is ninety degrees away from the sun; two phases are biconvex - when the moon is one hundred and twenty degrees away from the sun; two phases of incomplete full moon and incomplete light - when the moon is one hundred and fifty degrees away from the sun; a full moon is when the moon is one hundred and eighty degrees away from the sun. We talked about two phases, meaning the growth phase and the damage phase. Each zodiac sign's moon transits within two and a half days. Chapter VIII. About air and winds. Air is a very light element, moist and warm, heavier than fire and lighter than earth and water. Air is the cause of breathing and sound. It is colorless, that is, it does not naturally have a specific color; transparent because it can receive light. Air serves our three senses, for through it we see, hear and smell. It can absorb heat and cold, dryness and humidity. All types of spatial movement belong to him: up, down, in, out, right, left, as well as rotational movement. The air itself has no light; it is illuminated by the sun, moon, stars and fire. This is stated in Scripture: darkness is at the top of the abyss (Gen. 1, 2). Scripture wants to show by this that air does not itself have light, but the essence of light is different. Wind is the movement of air. In other words: the wind is a flow of air and changes its names depending on the places from which it originates. Place, in turn, is something airy, for the place of a visible body is that which embraces it. What hugs bodies if not air? The places from which air movement occurs are different; from these various places the winds received their names. There are twelve winds. They say that air is an extinguished fire or the evaporation of heated water. From this it turns out that the air is hot by nature, but cools due to its proximity to water and earth, so that its lower parts are cold, while its upper parts are warm 73 . As for the different winds, from the summer sunrise the kekiy, or middle one, blows; from equinox rising - east wind; from the winter east - evr; from the winter west - liv; from the summer west - argest or olympius, otherwise called japyx; then the south and north winds, blowing one towards the other. There is also a wind, the middle one between the kekiy and the north is boreas, between the eur and the south wind is the phoenix, called euronot, between the south and the liv is livonot, otherwise levkonot; between the northern and Argest - Thrasian, otherwise called Kerkiy by the surrounding inhabitants. [The peoples inhabiting the borders of the earth are the following: under Eurum - Indians; under Phoenix - the Red Sea and Ethiopia; under Livonot - Garamantes living beyond Sirte; under the rain - Ethiopians and Western Moors; under the western - the [Hercules] pillars and the initial borders of Libya and Europe; under argest - Iberia, now Spain; under the Thrascian - the Celts and the tribes bordering them; under the north wind - the Scythians living beyond Thrace; under the Boreas - Pontus, the Maeotian Sea and the Sarmatians; under the kekium – the Caspian Sea and Saki]. Water is also one of the four elements, the most beautiful creation of God. Water is a wet and cold element; it is heavy and tends downward, easily spreading over the surface. The Divine Scripture mentions it, saying: darkness was on top of the abyss, and the Spirit of God was carried on top of the water (Gen. 1, 2). Indeed, the abyss is nothing more than an abundance of water, the limit of which is inaccessible to people; for at first water covered the surface of the whole earth. And first of all, God created the firmament, which served as a barrier between the water, even above the firmament, and between the water, even under the firmament - (Gen. 1, 7); for, according to the Lord's command, the firmament was established in the midst of the abyss of water: God said that the firmament should be formed, and it was formed. But why did God place water above the firmament? Because of the intense heat emanating from the sun and the ether; for directly beyond the firmament the ether extends, and on the firmament are the sun with the moon and stars; and if there were no water from above, then the solid from the ball could ignite. Then God commanded the waters to gather together into one (Gen. 1:10). The words: the congregation is one, do not indicate that the waters were collected in one place, because after this it is said: and the collection of the waters called the sea (Gen. 1:10); the words mentioned indicate that the waters, being separated from the earth, united with each other. So the waters gathered into their own congregations, and dry land appeared (Gen. 1:9). From here came the two seas that embrace Egypt, for it is between two seas; these include various smaller seas, with their mountains, islands, capes, piers, bays, low-lying and rocky shores. A sandy seashore is called low-lying, while rocky, steep shore is called rocky, near which the depth immediately begins. In a similar way, the eastern sea, called the Indian, and the northern sea, called the Caspian, arose. The lakes came about in the same way. As for the ocean, it is like a river surrounding the entire earth; about him; as it seems to me, it is said in the divine Scripture: the river comes from Eden (Gen. 2, 10). The ocean has water that is drinkable and sweet. He delivers water to the seas, where it, staying for a long time and remaining motionless, becomes bitter, and its lightest parts are constantly extracted by the sun and tornadoes. From here clouds form and rain occurs, and the water, when filtered, becomes sweet. The ocean is divided into four channels (Gen. 2:10), or four rivers. The name of one river is Pison (Gen. 2:11), i.e. the Indian Ganges. The name of the second is Geon (Gen. 2:13); this is the Nile flowing from Ethiopia to Egypt. The name of the third is Tigris (Gen. 2:14), and the name of the fourth is Euphrates (Gen. 2:14). There are many other great rivers, some of which flow into the sea, others are lost in the earth. Therefore, throughout the earth there are wells and passages, like some veins, through which it receives water from the sea and emits springs. Because of this, the water in the springs also depends on the quality of the earth, for sea water is filtered and purified by the earth, and thus becomes sweet. If the place from which the source flows turns out to be bitter or salty, then the water that comes out is the same. Often, water, being constrained and forcefully breaking out, heats up, as a result of which native warm waters appear 74. So, by divine command, depressions appeared in the earth, and thus the waters gathered into their assemblies (Gen. 1:9), as a result of which mountains were formed. Then God commanded water, the first, to produce a living soul (Gen. 1:20); for He wanted, through water and the Holy Spirit, who initially hovered over the waters (Gen. 1:2), to renew man: this is what the divine Basil says. And the earth produced animals, small and great, whales, dragons, fish swimming in the water, and feathered birds: thus, through birds, water, earth and air are connected to each other, for they came from water, live on earth and fly through the air. Water is the most beautiful of the elements and brings many benefits; it cleanses from impurity, not only from bodily impurity, but - if it accepts the grace of the Spirit - also from spiritual impurity 75 . Beyond the Aegean Sea begins the Hellespont, extending to Abis and Sestus; then follows the Propontis, extending to Chalcedon and Byzantium, where there is a strait, beyond which Pontus begins; Next comes Maeotian Lake. Then, where Europe and Libya begin, there is the Iberian Sea, stretching from the pillars of Hercules to the Pyrenees Mountain, then the Ligurian Sea, stretching to the borders of Etruria, then the Sardinian Sea, lying beyond Sardinia and turning towards Libya; then the Tyrrhenian, extending to Sicily and starting from the borders of the Ligurian country. Next comes the Libyan sea, then the Cretan, Sicilian, Ionian and Adriatic seas, originating from the Sicilian Sea, called the Gulf of Corinth or the Alcyonid Sea. The sea enclosed by Cape Sunium and Cape Skillei is called the Saronic Sea; it is followed by the Myrtoian and Icarian seas, in which the Cycladic islands are located; further extend the Carpathian, Pamphylian and Egyptian seas; Above the Icarian Sea lies the Aegean Sea. The waterway along the coast of Europe, from the mouths of the Tanais River to the pillars of Hercules, is 609,709 stadia; and the waterway along the coast of Libya - from Tinga to the Kanobsky mouth - 209,252 stadia; finally, the waterway along the coast of Asia - from Kanob to the Tanais River, along with the bays - 4-111 stadia. The entire sea coast of the land currently inhabited, together with the bays, is 1,309,072 stadia in length. Chapter X. About the earth and what comes from it. The earth is one of the four elements, dry, cold, heavy and motionless, brought by God from non-existence into existence on the first day; for Scripture says: in the beginning God created heaven and earth (Gen. 1:1). On what the earth is established and based - no one is able to explain. So some say that it is established and strengthened on the waters, according to the word of the divine David: who established the earth on the waters (Ps. 135:6); others believe that it is established in the air; and the third says: hang the earth for nothing (Job 26:7). And in another place, the God-speaking David, as if on behalf of the Creator, says: I established its pillars (Ps. 74:4), calling the strength that supports it pillars. The words: I founded it on the seas (Ps. 23:2) show that the water element surrounds the earth on all sides. So, whether we admit that the earth is established on itself, or on the air, or on the waters, or on nothing, we should not deviate from a pious way of thinking, but confess that everything is governed and supported by the power of the Creator. In the beginning, as Scripture says (Gen. 1:2), the earth was covered with waters and was unsettled, or not put in order. But at the command of God, water containers were formed; Then the mountains appeared, and the earth, by the command of God, received its characteristic structure, adorned with all kinds of herbs and plants, into which the Divine command invested the power to grow, feed, produce seeds or give birth to their own kind. In addition, the earth produced, at the command of the Creator, different kinds of animals - reptiles, animals and livestock. The earth produced all this for the appropriate use of man, but some animals were intended for food, such as: deer, sheep, goats, etc.; others for service, such as: camels, oxen, horses, donkeys, etc.; Still others are for entertainment, such as: monkeys, and among birds - magpies, parrots, etc. The situation is similar with plants and herbs. Some of them bear fruit, others are used as food, others are fragrant and blooming and are given to us for enjoyment - such is the rose, etc.; the fourth serve to heal diseases. There is not a single animal or plant into which the Creator has not invested some power useful for human needs; for God, who knew everything before their existence (Dan. 13:42), foreseeing that man would arbitrarily break the commandment and be given over to corruption, created everything, both in heaven and on earth and in the waters, so that it would serve for the timely use of man. Before the transgression of the commandment, everything was subject to man, for God made him ruler over everything on earth and in the waters. Even the snake was attached to man and more often than other animals approached him and, with its pleasant movements, seemed to be talking to him. That is why the founder of evil is the devil, and through him he inspired our ancestors with the most evil advice. Then the earth itself bore fruits, so that animals subject to man could use them, and there was neither rain nor winter on the earth. After the crime, when man became like the foolish cattle and became like them (Ps. 48:13), when he allowed unreasonable lust to dominate the rational soul and became disobedient to the commandment of the Lord, then the subject creature rebelled against the ruler appointed by the Creator, and he was assigned by the sweat of his brow to cultivate the land from which he was taken (Gen. 3:19) 76. But even now animals are not useless to us, since they instill fear in us and encourage us to remember God the Creator and cry out to Him for help. Likewise, after the crime, thorns began to grow from the ground, according to the word of the Lord; From now on, even with the beauty and aroma of roses, thorns have become inseparably associated, reminding us of the crime, as a result of which the earth was condemned to produce thorns and thistles for us (Gen. 3:18). That this is so is confirmed by the fact that all this remains to this day in the power of the word of the Lord, who said: grow, multiply and fill the earth (Gen. 1, 22, 28). Some argue that the earth is spherical, while others recognize it as cone-shaped. But it is smaller, even incomparably smaller than the sky, being, as it were, some point hanging in the center of the celestial sphere. The earth will pass away (Matthew 5:18) and change. And blessed is he who will inherit the land of the meek (Matthew 5:5), for the land that receives the saints is immortal. So, who will worthily praise the boundless and incomprehensible wisdom of the Creator, or who will give due thanks to the Giver of such great blessings? There are 34 known regions of the earth or satrapies in Europe, 48 on the great Asian continent, and 12 so-called canons. Having decided from visible and invisible nature to create man in His image and likeness - so that he would be, as it were, some kind of king and ruler of the whole earth and what is on it - God prepared for him, as it were, some kind of palace, where he would live a blissful and contented life. This was the divine paradise, planted by the hands of God in Eden, a repository of joy and all joy, for the word Eden means pleasure. He was in the east, towering over the whole earth. There was the most perfect goodness in him. The finest and purest air surrounded him; ever-blooming plants decorated it. It was saturated with incense, filled with light and surpassed any idea of ​​sensual charm and beauty. It was a truly divine country and a worthy home for those created in the image of God. Not a single irrational animal lived in paradise: only man lived there, the creation of divine hands 77 . In the middle of paradise, God planted the tree of life and the tree of knowledge. The tree of knowledge was supposed to serve as some test and temptation for man and an exercise in his obedience and disobedience. Therefore, it was called the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen. 2, 9, 17). However, this name may have been given to it because it imparted to those who tasted the ability to know their own nature. This was good for those who were perfect, but bad for those who had not achieved perfection and those possessed by voluptuous desires, just as solid food is harmful for babies who need milk. In fact, God who created us did not want us to worry and fuss about many things (Luke 10:41) and for us to be prudent and prudent regarding our own lives. But Adam truly experienced this, for, having tasted it, he recognized that he was naked, and put on a girdle, for he took the leaves of the fig tree and girded himself with them (Gen. 3:7). Before eating the best, both Adam and Eve were naked and were not ashamed (Gen. 2:25). And God wanted us to be just as dispassionate - for this is the pinnacle of dispassion. He also wanted us to be free from worries and have one task characteristic of angels, that is, to constantly and silently sing praises to the Creator, enjoy His contemplation and cast our worries on Him. This is what he announced to us through the prophet David: cast your sorrow upon the Lord, and He will nourish you (Ps. 54:23). And in the Gospel, teaching His disciples, He says: Do not worry about your soul, what you eat, nor about your body, what you put on (Matthew 6:25). And then: seek... the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all this will be added to you (Matthew 6:33). And He said to Martha: Marfo! Marfo! worry and speak about the multitude: but there is only one thing that is needed, but Mary has chosen the good part, which will not be taken away from her (Luke 10:41, 42), that is, to sit at His feet and listen to His words 78. As for the tree of life, it was either a tree that had the power to give life, or a tree from which only those worthy of life and not subject to death could eat. Some imagined heaven as sensual, others as spiritual. It seems to me that, in accordance with the way that man was created both sensual and spiritual, so his most sacred destiny was both sensual and spiritual, and had two sides; for with body man, as we said, lived in the most divine and most beautiful place, but with soul he lived in a place incomparably higher and incomparably more beautiful, having as his dwelling place God who dwelt in him and putting on Him as in a bright robe, covering himself with His grace and enjoying, like some new angel, only the sweetest fruit of His contemplation and feeding on it; this is rightly called the tree of life, for the sweetness of divine communion imparts to those worthy of it life, uninterrupted by death. God called the same thing every tree, saying: “Thou shalt bring food from every tree that is in Paradise” (Gen. 2:16), for He Himself is all things, in whom and through whom all things are accomplished (Col. 1:17) 79. And the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is the recognition of a diverse spectacle, that is, the knowledge of one’s own nature. This knowledge, revealing from itself the greatness of the Creator, is wonderful for those who are perfect and established in divine contemplation and are not afraid of falling, for they, as a result of prolonged exercise, have acquired some skill in such contemplation. But it is not good for those who are still inexperienced and subject to voluptuous desires. Since they are not strengthened in goodness and are not yet sufficiently established in their attachment to the beautiful alone, they are usually attracted to themselves and entertained by caring for their own body 80 . Thus, I think that the divine paradise was twofold, and therefore the God-bearing fathers taught equally correctly - both those who held one view and those who held another. The expression: every tree can be understood in the sense of the knowledge of the power of God, acquired from examining creation, as the divine Apostle says: for the invisible things of Him from the creation of the world were thought by the created things (Rom. 1:20). But above all these thoughts and contemplations is the thought about ourselves, that is, about our composition, according to the word of the divine David: Your mind was amazed at me (Ps. 139:6), i.e. from my device. However, for Adam, who was just created, this knowledge was dangerous for the reasons that we have stated. By the tree of life we ​​can also understand that greatest knowledge that we draw from the consideration of everything sensory, and the path by which through this knowledge we ascend to the Founder, Creator and Cause of everything that exists. This is what God called every tree, that is, complete and indivisible, bringing only affection for good. The tree of the knowledge of good and evil can be understood in the sense of sensual, pleasurable food, which, although it seems pleasant,... however, in essence it is the cause of evil for the one who tastes it; for God says: from every tree that is in Paradise, bring food (Gen. 2:16), expressing by this, as I think, the following: from all creations, ascend to Me, the Creator, and from all of them gather one fruit - Me, true life; let everything bring you as fruit, consider life and communication with Me as the basis of your existence; for in this way you will be immortal. But if you take away from the tree, even if you take away the good and the evil, you will surely die (Gen. 2, 17); for, according to the natural order, sensual food is a replenishment of what is lost, and it is thrown out and decays; and one who feeds on sensual food cannot remain incorruptible. This is how God created the spiritual essence, that is, the angels and all the heavenly orders, for angels, without any doubt, have a spiritual and incorporeal nature. However, I am talking about the incorporeal nature of angels, in comparison with the gross materiality of matter, for in essence only the Divine is immaterial and incorporeal. Besides. God also created the sensory essence, that is, heaven, earth and what is between them. And God created the first essence similar to Himself, for the rational nature, comprehended only by the mind, is similar to God. God created the second essence in all respects very far from Himself, since it is completely accessible to the senses. But it was necessary that there should also be a mixture of both essences, which would testify to the highest wisdom and generosity in relation to both natures and, as the God-speaking Gregory says, would be some kind of connection between the visible and invisible nature. I say “should”, meaning here the will of the Creator, for it is the most perfect charter and law. And no one will say to the Creator: why did you create me this way? for the potter has the power to make various vessels from his clay (Rom. 9:21) in order to show his wisdom 81. Thus, God, from visible and invisible nature, with His own hands, creates man in His image and likeness. From the earth He formed the body of man, and gave him a rational and thinking soul by His inspiration. This is what we call the image of God, for the expression: in the image - indicates the ability of the mind and freedom; whereas the expression: in likeness means assimilation to God in virtue, as far as it is possible for a person. The soul was created together with the body, and not, as Origen talked idlely, as if the soul was created first, and then the body. So, God created man immaculate, upright, loving goodness, free from sorrow and care, adorned with every virtue, abounding in all blessings, as if some second world - small in the great - like a new angel worshiping God - created him mixed of two natures, a contemplator of the visible creation, penetrating the secrets of the mental creation, reigning over what is on earth and subordinate the highest power, earthly and heavenly, temporary and immortal, visible and intelligible, as the middle between greatness and insignificance; created him at the same time by spirit and flesh: by spirit by grace, by flesh as a warning against pride; in spirit - so that he remains unchanged and glorifies the Benefactor, in the flesh - so that he suffers and, while suffering, remembers who he is, and, falling into pride, comes to his senses; created him as a living being, which is directed here, i.e. in this life, and which moves to another place, i.e. into the next century; created him - which is the limit of the mystery - due to his inherent attraction to God, turning into God through participation in divine illumination, but not passing into the divine essence 82. He created him sinless by nature and free by will. I say "sinless" - not because he was not susceptible to sin - for only the Divine is not susceptible to sin - but because the possibility of sin lay not in his nature, but rather in his free will. This means that, with the assistance of divine grace, he had the opportunity to remain and succeed in goodness, and equally, by virtue of his freedom, with God’s permission, to abandon goodness and find himself in evil, for what is done under compulsion is not virtue 83 . The soul is a living, simple and incorporeal essence; invisible, by its nature, with bodily eyes; immortal, gifted with reason and intelligence, without a specific figure; it acts with the help of the organic body and imparts to it life, growth, feeling and the power of birth. The mind belongs to the soul, not as anything else distinct from it, but as the purest part of itself. As the eye is in the body, so is the mind in the soul. The soul, further, is a free being, possessing the ability to will and act; it is subject to change and, namely, change on the part of the will, as is characteristic of a created being. The soul received all this naturally through the grace of the Creator, by which it received both being and a certain nature 84. About the incorporeal wherever it is. We understand the incorporeal, invisible, and without a figure in two ways. One is such by its essence, the other by grace; one is such by nature, the other in comparison with the gross materiality of matter. So, by nature God is called incorporeal; angels, demons and souls receive this name by grace and in comparison with the gross materiality of matter. A body is something that has three dimensions, i.e. length, width and depth, or thickness. Each body consists of four elements. The bodies of animals consist of four humours. It should be noted that the four elements are earth - dry and cold, water - cold and wet, air - wet and warm, fire - warm and dry. Likewise, the four humours, corresponding to the four elements, are black bile, which corresponds to the earth, since it is dry and cold; mucus, corresponding to water, because it is cold and wet; phlegmatic moisture, corresponding to air, since it is moist and warm; yellow bile, corresponding to fire, since it is warm and dry. Fruits are formed from the elements, moisture from fruits, and the bodies of animals from moisture into which they decompose, since everything complex decomposes into its component parts. About what a person has in common with inanimate things, and dumb creatures, and with those gifted with reason. It should be noted that man has something in common with inanimate beings, participates in the life of the irrational, and possesses the thinking of the rational. Man has similarities with inanimate beings in that he has a body and consists of four elements; with plants in the same and, moreover, in that which has the power of feeding, growing, producing seed and giving birth; and with the unreasonable - in everything just mentioned and in addition in that which has drives, that is, is susceptible to anger and desire, that is endowed with feeling and the ability to move according to internal impulses. Of course, there are five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch. Voluntary movement consists in moving from place to place, in the movement of the whole body, in making sound and breathing, for it is in our power to do this and not to do it. Man comes into contact with incorporeal and spiritual beings through reason - reasoning, forming concepts and judgments about each thing, striving for virtues and loving that which constitutes the pinnacle of all virtues - piety; therefore man is a small world 85. It should be borne in mind that only the body is characterized by division, flow and change. The change consists of a change in quality, i.e., heating, cooling, etc. The expiration consists of depletion, for both dry and wet, and respiration, which need replenishment, are subject to depletion; This is where natural feelings come from, such as hunger or thirst. Separation consists in the separation of one moisture from another, and also in the decomposition into form and matter. The soul is characterized by piety and understanding. But virtues belong equally to both the soul and the body, and precisely because they relate to the soul, since the body serves the needs of the soul. It should be taken into account that rational forces dominate over irrational ones - for the forces of the soul are divided into rational and irrational. There are two types of irrational forces. Some of them are disobedient to reason, that is, they do not obey it; the latter are obedient and obey reason. The animal power, also called the power of blood circulation, the power of producing semen, or the power of birth, the plant power, also called the power of nutrition, are disobedient to reason and do not obey it; The types of this force are the force of increase and the force of formation of bodies. All these forces are controlled not by reason, but by nature. The forces of the soul that are obedient and subordinate to reason are anger and desire. In general, the unreasonable part of the soul is called passive and desirable. It should be noted that voluntary movement belongs to that part of the soul that obeys reason. On the contrary, the power of nutrition, the power of birth and the power of blood circulation belong to that part of the soul that does not obey reason. The power of growth, nutrition and birth is called vegetable power, and the power of blood circulation is called animal power. The power of nutrition consists of four forces: the attracting force, by which food is attracted; the holding force, which holds the food and does not allow it to be immediately expelled; transformative power, which transforms food into moisture; separating force, which separates out excess and throws out 86. It must be borne in mind that of those forces that are inherent in animals, some are spiritual forces, others are plant forces, and others are animal forces. Mental powers are those that depend on the will, such as: voluntary movement and the ability to feel. Voluntary movement consists of moving from place to place, moving the whole body, making sound and breathing; for it is up to us to do this and not to do it. Plant and vital forces do not depend on will. Vegetative forces are the power of nutrition, the power of growth and the power of seed production. Life force is the force of blood circulation. These forces act both when we want it and when we don’t want it. It should be noted that some things are good, while others are bad. The expected good produces desire; the present good is pleasure. In turn, expected evil produces fear in the same way, while present evil produces displeasure. It should be borne in mind that when speaking here about good, we meant both real good and imaginary good. The same applies to evil. Chapter XIII. About pleasures. Pleasures are mental and physical. Soul pleasures are those that belong only to the soul in itself; such, for example, are the pleasures derived from knowledge and contemplation. Bodily pleasures are those in which both soul and body participate and which receive their name from this; such, for example, are the pleasures provided by food, carnal union, etc. Pleasures characteristic of the body alone cannot be specified. On the other hand, some pleasures are true, others are false. Those pleasures which belong to the mind alone arise from knowledge and contemplation; the same pleasures in which the body participates have their source in feeling. Moreover, of the pleasures in which the body participates, some are natural and at the same time necessary, without which it is impossible to live, such as: food and necessary clothing; others are natural, but devoid of the property of necessity, such as: sexual intercourse, natural or legal, for although sexual intercourse contributes to the continuation of the human race as a whole, it is possible to live without them - in virginity; third pleasures are neither necessary nor natural, such as: drunkenness, voluptuousness, satiety. These pleasures contribute neither to the preservation of our life, nor to the continuity of the family, and even on the contrary, they harm. Therefore, one who lives in accordance with the will of God must seek necessary and, at the same time, natural pleasures; and in second place to place pleasures that are natural, but not necessary, allowing them at a decent time, in a decent way and in decent measure. Other pleasures should be avoided at all costs. Good pleasures should be recognized as those that are not associated with displeasure, do not leave a reason for repentance, do not cause any other harm, do not go beyond the boundaries of moderation, do not distract too much from important matters and do not enslave oneself. Chapter XIV. About displeasure. There are four types of displeasure: grief, sadness, envy, compassion. Grief is displeasure that produces loss of voice; sadness is displeasure that oppresses the heart; envy - displeasure experienced at other people's goods; compassion is displeasure experienced at the misfortunes of others 87 . Fear also comes in six types: indecision, bashfulness, shame, horror, amazement, anxiety. Indecision is fear of future action. Shame is the fear of expected reproach; this is the most wonderful feeling. Shyness is fear of having already committed a shameful act, and this feeling is not hopeless in the sense of saving a person. Horror is fear of some great phenomenon. Amazement is fear of some extraordinary phenomenon. Anxiety is the fear of failure or failure, because, fearing failure in any matter, we experience anxiety 88. Anger is the boiling of the blood around the heart, resulting from the evaporation or disturbance of bile, therefore in Greek anger is also called χολη and χολος, which means bile. Sometimes anger is combined with a desire for revenge; for, being offended or considering ourselves offended, we become angry, so that in this case a feeling is formed, mixed from attraction and anger 89 . There are three types of anger: irritation - also called χολη and χολος - anger and vindictiveness. Irritation is the name given to anger that begins and gets excited. Malice - long-lasting anger, or rancor; in Greek, such anger is called μηνις - from μενειν - to remain, abide and μνησικακια - from μνημη παραδιδοσθαι - to remain in memory. Vindictiveness is anger waiting for an opportunity to take revenge. In Greek, such anger is called κοτος, from κεισθαι - to lie down. Anger serves reason and is the protector of desire. Thus, when we want to carry out some task and someone prevents us from doing so, we become angry with him as if we are being subjected to injustice, for for the minds of people who protect their natural rights, such an obstacle should obviously be recognized as worthy of indignation. Chapter XVII. About imagination. Imagination is the power of the unreasonable soul, acting through the senses and also called feeling. The imaginary and perceived feeling is that which is subject to imagination and feeling. Thus, vision is the very ability to see, and what is visible will be that which is subject to vision, for example, a stone or something similar. Perception is an impression produced in the irrational soul by some sensory object. A dream is an impression occurring in the irrational parts of the soul without any sensory object. The organ of imagination is the anterior ventricle of the brain 90. Feeling is the power of the irrational soul that perceives or recognizes material objects. The sense organs are the instruments or members through which we feel. Sensory objects are objects that can be perceived through feeling, and a sensory being is an animal that has feeling. There are five senses, as well as five sense organs. The first sense is sight. The organs and instruments of vision are the nerves and eyes coming out of the brain. Colors are primarily perceived by vision; but along with color, vision also recognizes a body colored in a certain way, its size, figure, the place it occupies, the mutual distance and number of bodies, as well as movement, rest, roughness, smoothness, evenness, unevenness, sharpness, dullness and, finally, the composition of the body, determining whether it is watery or earthy, that is, wet or dry 91 . The second sense is hearing, with the help of which sounds and noises are perceived. The ear recognizes how high, low, smooth, uneven, and strong they are. The organ of hearing is the delicate nerves of the brain and the ears with their characteristic structure. Only humans and monkeys have fixed ears. The third sense is smell. It is produced by the nostrils, which direct odors to the brain, and ends at the edges of the anterior ventricles of the brain. Vapors are felt and perceived by the sense of smell. The most important types of odors are aroma and stench, as well as the smell intermediate between both, that is, neither fragrant nor fetid. Incense occurs when the moist parts of the body are fully ripe; medium smell when they are half ripe; if they are less than half ripe or not at all ripe, then there is a stench 92 . The fourth sense is taste, by which tastes are sensed and perceived. The organs of taste are the tongue, especially the tip of the tongue, and the upper part of the mouth, called the palate. These organs contain widely branching nerves coming from the brain, which transmit this perception or sensation to the soul. The taste qualities of the consumed substances are as follows: sweetness, bitterness, acidity, pungency, astringency, saltiness, oiliness, viscosity. The fifth sense is touch, which is common to all animals. It operates with the help of nerves coming out of the brain and spreading throughout the body, so the sense of touch belongs to the whole body, not excluding other senses. By touch we perceive warm and cold, soft and hard, viscous and hard, heavy and light. All this is known by one touch. By touch and sight together we perceive rough and smooth, dry and damp, thick and thin, top and bottom, as well as place and size - if it is such that it can be covered by one touch - then dense and rare, or spongy, as well as round and other figures when they are small in size. By touch also, with the help of memory and reason, we perceive an approaching body and the number of objects up to two or three, if only these objects are small in size and easy to grab. However, the number of objects is more perceived by vision than by touch. It should be noted that all sense organs, with the exception of the organ of touch, are arranged by the Creator in pairs, so that if one is damaged, the need is served by the other. Thus, He created two eyes, two ears, two nasal openings and two tongues, and the latter in some animals are divided, like in snakes, in others, they are united, like in humans. And He imparted the sense of touch to the entire body, except for bones, veins, claws, horns, hair, ligaments and some other similar parts of the body. It should also be taken into account that vision sees in straight lines, but smell and hearing operate not only in a straight line, but everywhere. Finally, touch and taste perceive objects not in a straight line, and not everywhere, but only when they approach the most tangible objects 93. Chapter XIX. About thinking ability. The thinking ability includes judgment, approval, desire for action, as well as aversion and avoidance. In particular, this activity includes the perception of the intelligible, virtues, knowledge, the rules of the arts, reflection before performing an action, free choice 94. This same ability operates in dreams, foreshadowing the future. The Pythagoreans, following the Jews, claim that such dreams are the only true prophecy. The organ of the ability to think is the middle ventricle of the brain and the vital spirit located in it 95. Chapter XX. About the ability of memory. The faculty of memory is the cause and repository of memory and recollection. Memory is an idea remaining in the soul from some sensory perception and some thought that has found actual expression; in other words, memory is the preservation of perception and thought. In fact, the soul perceives or feels sensory objects through the senses, and then an idea arises; The soul comprehends mental objects with its mind - and then a concept is formed. Thus, when the soul retains the imprints of ideas and thoughts, then we say that it remembers. It should be borne in mind that the perception of mental objects occurs only through learning or innate ideas, for such perception cannot be obtained through sensory sensation. In fact, sensory objects are remembered by themselves; on the contrary, we store mental objects in memory when we have learned something about them. However, we have no memory of the essence of these objects. Recollection is the restoration of memory lost under the influence of oblivion. Oblivion is the loss of memory. So, the imagination, perceiving material objects through the senses, conveys the received impressions to the thinking or rational faculty, for both names mean the same thing; and thinking, having accepted them and discussed them, transfers the abilities of memory 96. The organ of memory is the posterior ventricle of the brain - also called the cerebellum - and the vital spirit located in it. Chapter XXI. About the word internal and external. The rational part of the soul, in turn, is divided into an internal word and an external word. The inner word is a movement of the soul occurring in the mind without any expression in speech. Therefore, it happens that we often silently, mentally pronounce an entire speech or reason in our sleep. In relation to this type of speech, we are primarily verbal, or rational, for those who are mute from birth or who have lost the ability to speak due to illness are nevertheless rational beings. The external word actually has an existence in speech and in different languages; in other words: this is a word pronounced by the mouth and tongue; hence it is called pronounceable, or external. In relation to this external word we are called having the ability to speak. Chapter XXII. About suffering and action The word "suffering" has different meanings. There is bodily suffering, such as illnesses and wounds; there is, on the other hand, mental suffering, such as lust and anger. Generally speaking, the suffering of a living being is a state followed by pleasure and displeasure. Suffering is followed by displeasure; but displeasure is not suffering itself, for when objects devoid of feeling are subjected to suffering, they do not experience pain. Thus, it is not suffering that is painful, but the feeling of suffering. And for such a feeling to take place, the suffering must be worthy of attention, that is, significant in strength. Mental suffering, or passion, is defined as follows: passion is a movement of the volitional faculty, felt by the soul and based on the idea of ​​good or evil; otherwise: passion is an unreasonable movement of the soul caused by the idea of ​​good and evil. The idea of ​​good causes desire, and the idea of ​​evil causes irritation. The generic or general definition of suffering is this: suffering is a movement in one object produced by another object. In contrast, action is active movement. Something that moves on its own is called active. Thus, anger is the action of the corresponding faculty of the soul, but it is the suffering of both parts of the soul, as well as the whole body, when anger forcibly drags them into action; for here movement in one is produced by another, which is called suffering. And in another respect, action is called suffering: action is precisely movement in accordance with nature, while suffering is action contrary to nature. In this sense, an action is called suffering when an object moves inconsistently with nature, it makes no difference whether the movement comes from itself or from another object. Therefore, the movement of the heart with proper blood circulation, as natural, is an action. When the heart falters, then any movement, as uneven and contrary to nature, is suffering, not action. Not every movement of the passive part of the soul is called passion; This name is given only to movements that are stronger and become noticeable to the soul. Small movements that remain unnoticeable to the soul are not passions; for the suffering must be of a magnitude worthy of attention. Therefore, to the definition of passion we add: felt movement, since small movements that cannot be felt do not produce suffering 97 . It should be borne in mind that our soul has two kinds of powers - cognitive and vital. Cognitive powers are mind, reason, opinion, imagination, sensory perception; vital, or volitional - desire and free choice. To make this clearer, we will look at these abilities in detail. First, let's talk about cognitive abilities. Enough has already been said about imagination and sensory perception. As we know, as a result of sensory perception, an impression is formed in the soul, called an idea; from the idea an opinion is formed; then reason, having discussed this opinion, recognizes it either true or false, which is why it is called reason - from reason, discuss. Finally, what is discussed and accepted as truth is called mind 98. If we talk about the mind differently and in more detail, then we should keep in mind that the first movement of the mind is called thinking. Thinking about a particular subject is called thought. A thought that remains in the soul for a long time and imprints a certain mental object on it is called deliberation. When the discussion, focusing on the same subject, tests itself and considers the conformity of the soul with the imaginable object, then it receives the name of understanding. The expanded understanding constitutes reasoning, called the inner word. The latter is defined as follows: this is the complete movement of the soul, occurring in its rational part, without any expression in speech. From the inner word comes, as they usually say, the outer word, expressed through language. Having now spoken about cognitive forces, let’s talk about vital or volitional forces. It should be noted that the soul has an innate ability to desire what is in accordance with its nature, and to preserve everything that essentially belongs to this nature; this ability is called will. In fact, every independent being, striving for what is inherent in its nature and full existence, wants to exist, live and move in accordance with the mind and feeling. Therefore, such a natural will is defined as follows: will is a rational and at the same time vital attraction, depending exclusively on natural conditions. Thus, will is a simple, indivisible force, a single, self-identical, natural attraction to everything that constitutes the nature of the will; this drive is both vital and rational, for the drives of animals, being irrational, are not called will. Want is a certain manifestation of natural will, in other words: a natural and reasonable attraction to any object; for in the human soul lies the ability to understand instincts. Thus, when such a rational attraction is naturally directed towards any object, it receives the name of desire, for desire is a rational attraction and desire for any object 99 . In a word, desire is designated both by the desire for what is in our power and the desire for what is not in our power, that is, both the desire for the possible and the desire for the impossible. So often we want to commit fornication, remain celibate, sleep, etc. All this is in our power and possible. But we also want to reign, which is no longer in our power. We may want to never die, but this belongs to the realm of the impossible. Wanting has a goal in mind, not something that leads to a goal. The goal is the object of desire, such as, for example, to reign, to be healthy. The means we come up with lead to the goal, for example, a way to achieve health or become a king. Wanting is followed by searching and research. Then, if the object of desire is in our power, discussion or deliberation takes place. Discussion is a desire combined with an investigation of those actions that are in our power; for the discussion concerns whether something should be undertaken or not. After this it is decided which is better; this is called a decision. Then, regarding what has been decided, we are tuned in a certain way, we develop love for it; this is called propensity. And if we decided on something, but did not tune in to it in a certain way, or we did not develop love for it, then we don’t talk about inclination. Then, after a certain mood has appeared in us, free election or choice follows, for free election consists in the fact that, of two actions free for us, one is taken and chosen preferably over the other. Having made choices, we then strive for action; this is called aspiration. Further, having reached the object of our desires, we use it; this is called using. Finally, use is followed by cessation of craving 100 . In irrational animals, as soon as any attraction arises, it is immediately followed by a desire for action; for the attraction of irrational creatures is unreasonable, and they are led by natural attraction. Therefore, the attraction of irrational beings is not called either will or desire, since the will is a rational and free natural attraction. In people, as rational beings, natural attraction does not so much govern as it is controlled; for it acts freely and together with the mind, since in man the cognitive forces and the vital forces are interconnected. Therefore, a person is freely attracted by desire, freely explores and considers, freely thinks, freely decides, freely adjusts in a certain way, freely makes a choice, freely strives, freely accomplishes everything that is in accordance with nature. It should be borne in mind that we attribute will to God, but we do not attribute choice to Him in the proper sense, for God does not think about His actions, since deliberation is a consequence of ignorance: no one thinks about what he knows. If deliberation is a consequence of ignorance, then, undoubtedly, the same must be said about choice. And since God directly knows everything, He does not discuss His actions 101. Likewise, in relation to the soul of the Lord Jesus Christ, we are not talking about deliberation and choice; for ignorance was not characteristic of her. Even if a nature that did not know the future belonged to Him, however, having been hypostatically united with God the Word, it possessed knowledge of everything not by grace, but, as was said, by hypostatic union; for one and the same was both God and man. As a result of this, He did not have certain inclinations of the will. True, He belonged to a simple natural will, which we equally see in all hypostases of the human race. But His holy soul had no inclination or object of desire that was contrary to the object of His Divine will or different from the object of His Divine will. The inclinations in individual hypostases are different, with the exception of the hypostases of the holy, simple, uncomplicated and indivisible Deity. Here the hypostases are inseparable and inseparable, and therefore the object of the will is also inseparable; here there is one nature, and therefore one natural will; here the hypostases are inseparable, and therefore there is one object of will and one movement of the three hypostases. As for people, it is true that they have one natural will, for they have one nature; but since their hypostases are divided and separated from one another - by place, time, relationship to objects and very many other circumstances - then their wills and inclinations are different. In our Lord Jesus Christ the natures are different, and therefore the natural wills, or powers of desire, are different, belonging, on the one hand, to His Divinity, and on the other, to His humanity. But, on the other hand, in Him there is one hypostasis, one leader, and therefore one object of the will, or one inclination of the will, for His human will, of course, followed His Divine will and wanted what the Divine will demanded of it 102. It should be noted that will, desire, the object of desire - the one who is able to want and the one who wants - differ from each other. Will is the simple ability to desire. Want is the will directed towards a specific object. The object of desire is the thing to which the will is directed, or what we want. Let's say, for example, that we develop a craving for food. Simple rational attraction is will; attraction to food is desire; and food itself is an object of desire; one who has the power of volition is called capable of will; the one who uses the will is called willing. It should be borne in mind that the word will sometimes means the ability to want - then it is called natural will, and sometimes it means the object of desire - and then it is called rational will. Chapter XXIII. About activities. It should be borne in mind that all the forces discussed above, both cognitive and vital, both natural and artificial, are called activities. Activities are the force and motion belonging to each individual entity. Or according to another definition: natural activity is a movement associated with the nature of any individual entity. From this it is clear that things having the same essence have the same activity; on the contrary, things whose natures are different have different activities; for an essence cannot but have natural activity. Activity is further defined as the natural force expressing each essence. Activity is also defined as follows: activity is the natural and first always active force of the rational soul, that is, its always active mind, flowing out of it naturally and incessantly. Finally, there is such a definition of activity: activity is the natural force and movement belonging to each substance, without which nothing but non-existence is possible. Activities are called, firstly, actions, for example: talking, walking, eating, drinking, etc. Secondly, natural passive states are often called activities, for example: hunger, thirst, etc. Finally, the product of force 103 is also called activity. The words are also used in a double sense: in possibility and in reality. Thus, we say about an infant that he is a potential grammarian, for he has the ability to become a grammarian through learning. Also about grammar we say that he is a grammarian in possibility and in reality. He is a grammarian in reality, since he has knowledge of grammar. But he is a grammarian and in possibility, since he can teach grammar, but in reality he does not teach it. And again we actually call him a grammarian if he acts, that is, teaches. It should be noted that the second case is thus general, both for possibility and for reality, namely, firstly, here there is reality and, secondly, possibility. Self-determining, in other words, rational and free life, which constitutes the advantage of the human race, is the first, only and true reality of our nature. And I don’t know how those who deny this activity in Him call the Lord God incarnate. Activity is the active movement of nature; active is that which moves by itself. Chapter XXIV. About voluntary and involuntary. Since both that which is voluntary and that which is considered involuntary are found in one or another action, then some, even about that which is truly involuntary, believe that it occurs not only in suffering, but also in action. In contrast to this, it should be borne in mind that an act is a rational activity. Actions are accompanied by either praise or blame. Moreover, some of them are performed with pleasure, others with displeasure; some are attractive to the actor, others are disgusting. Further, among attractive actions, some are always attractive, others for some time. The same applies to disgusting actions. In addition, some actions are merciful and rewarded with leniency, while others arouse hatred and are punished. Thus, what is voluntary is always followed by either praise or blame; voluntary actions are always performed with pleasure and are attractive to the performer - attractive either always, or when they are performed. On the contrary, the involuntary is distinguished by the fact that it is awarded condescension and mercy, is done with displeasure, is not attractive, and it would never be allowed by a person, even if he was forced to do so 104. Involuntary is of two types - involuntary due to coercion and involuntary due to ignorance. The first occurs when the active principle, or cause, is outside, that is, when we are forced by someone else, but we ourselves do not agree at all, do not participate in it with our own disposition and do not contribute in the least, or when we, on our own initiative, do what we are forced to do. Defining this type of involuntary, we say: involuntary is that, the beginning of which is outside and in which the person subjected to coercion does not participate by his own disposition; Moreover, by beginning we here mean the producing cause. Involuntary due to ignorance occurs in the case when we ourselves are not the cause of our ignorance, but when our ignorance is accidental. So, if someone commits murder while intoxicated, then he committed the murder out of ignorance, but not involuntarily, for he himself created the cause of ignorance, that is, drunkenness. And if someone, shooting in the usual place, killed a father passing by, they say that he did it unwittingly - out of ignorance 105. If, therefore, the involuntary is of two kinds - due to coercion and due to ignorance, then the voluntary will be the opposite of both of these types of involuntary, for the voluntary is something that is done neither due to coercion nor due to ignorance. So, the voluntary is that, the beginning of which, or the cause, is located in the agent himself, who knows in detail everything through which the action is performed and what it consists of. These details are called circumstances by speakers. These are: who? i.e. who performed any action? whom? i.e. who perceived this action? What? that is, the action itself, for example, killed; how? i.e. what weapon? Where? i.e. in what place? When? i.e. at what time? How? i.e. the way the action is performed, why? T . e. for what reason 106. It should be borne in mind that there is something in between voluntary and involuntary. Thus, wanting to avoid great evil, we decide to do the unpleasant and regrettable, as, for example, during a shipwreck we throw away the cargo on the ship 107. It should be taken into account that children and non-sentient animals act voluntarily, but not by free choice. Likewise, what we do in irritation, without prior deliberation, we do voluntarily, but not out of free choice. In the same way, if a friend comes to us unexpectedly, we accept him voluntarily, but there is no free choice; or if someone unexpectedly receives wealth, he receives it voluntarily, but again without freedom of choice. All this is accepted voluntarily, because it gives pleasure, but there is no freedom of choice, since there is no preliminary deliberation. And as stated above, deliberation should always precede choice 108 . Chapter XXV. About what is in our power, or about freedom. When talking about freedom, that is, about what is in our power, we first of all encounter the following question: is anything in our power? - for many argue against this. The second question will be the question of what is in our power and what we are free to do. Finally, thirdly, we must find out the reason why the God who created us created us free. Starting with the first question, let us first of all prove, based on reasons recognized even by our opponents, that there is something within our power. We will conduct our speech in this way. The cause of everything that happens is considered to be either God, or necessity, or fate, or nature, or happiness, or chance. But the work of God is the essence of things and providence; the product of the necessary is the movement of that which exists unchanged; the product of fate is that which is produced by it with necessity, for fate itself is an expression of necessity; a product of nature - birth, growth, destruction, animals and plants; a product of happiness - rare and unexpected, for happiness is defined as the coincidence and confluence of two causes that have their origin in free choice, but produce something other than what they should produce. This will happen, for example, if someone digging a hole finds a treasure. In fact, the one who placed the treasure did not place it with the intention that another would find it; Likewise, this latter did not dig the ground with the intention of finding a treasure. But the first one put the treasure in order to take it whenever he wanted, and the second one dug in order to dig a hole. Something else happened, different from what both wanted. Finally, the product of chance are those events with inanimate objects and irrational animals that depend neither on nature nor on art. That's what the opponents of freedom say. Under which of these causes will we subsume human actions, if man is not the cause and beginning of his action? It is not proper for God to attribute shameful and unjust actions that people sometimes commit. Human actions cannot be attributed to necessity, for they do not belong to that which is unchangeable. They cannot be attributed to fate, because the work of fate is not called accidental, but necessary. They cannot be attributed to nature, for the products of nature are animals and plants. They cannot be attributed to happiness, because people’s actions are not something rare and unexpected. They cannot be attributed to chance, because random events are those involving inanimate objects and irrational animals. So, it remains to assume that the person who acts and produces something is the beginning of his actions - and is free 109. Moreover, if a person is not the origin of any of his actions, then he will not need the ability to think about his actions; for what will he apply this ability to if he has no power in any of his actions? for all deliberation implies action. But to recognize as unnecessary what is most beautiful and valuable in a person would be the height of absurdity. Therefore, if a person thinks about his actions, he does it for the sake of action, for all thinking has action in mind and is conditioned by action. Of the things that happen to us, some are in our power, while others are not in our power. In our power lies what we are free to do and not to do, in other words: everything that we do voluntarily, for an action is not called voluntary if it is not in our power. In a word, everything that is accompanied by blame and praise is in our power, and incentive and law belong to it. In the proper sense, every internal action and what we think about is in our power. Deliberation takes place with equally possible actions. Actions are equally possible when we can do one or the other, the opposite of the first. The choice of action is made by our mind, and therefore it is the beginning of activity. Thus, in our power lies everything that we can equally do and not do, for example: to move and not to move, to strive and not to strive, to desire what is not necessary and not to desire, to lie and not to lie, to give and not to give, to rejoice or not to rejoice at what we should, and equally to rejoice or not to rejoice at what we should not, and all the like, in which virtuous and vicious actions consist, for in all this we are free. The arts are also equally possible actions, for it is in our power to engage or not to engage in any art. It should be noted that the choice of action is always in our power; but the action is often delayed by a special action of Divine Providence. Chapter XXVII. About why we are free. We affirm that freedom is associated with reason, and that change and transformation are characteristic of creatures. In fact, everything that comes from another is changeable, since something that received its beginning as a result of change must necessarily be changeable, and change occurs when something passes from non-existence into being or when something else is formed from a given substance. But according to the methods of bodily change here set forth, inanimate objects and irrational animals are changed; rational beings change at will. A rational being has two abilities - contemplative and active. The contemplative faculty comprehends the nature of things, while the active faculty ponders actions and determines the correct measure for them. The contemplative faculty is called theoretical reason, while the active faculty is called practical reason; The contemplative faculty is also called wisdom, and the active faculty is called prudence. So, everyone who ponders his actions, since the choice of action depends on him, ponders them then in order to choose what is decided during such deliberation and, having chosen, execute it. If this is so, then a rational being will necessarily acquire freedom, for it will either not be rational, or, if rational, it will be the master of its actions and free 110. It also follows from this that irrational beings do not have freedom, for they are governed by nature rather than governing it themselves. Therefore, they do not resist natural desire, but as soon as they desire something, they strive for action. Man, as a rational being, controls nature rather than being controlled by it. Therefore, having wished for something, he, at will, has the opportunity to both suppress the wish and follow it. For the same reason, irrational beings deserve neither praise nor blame; a person is both praised and blamed. It should be noted that angels, as rational beings, are free and, like creatures, changeable. This was demonstrated by the devil, who was created good by the Creator, and the forces that fell away with him, that is, demons, while the other orders of angels remained in goodness. Chapter XXVIII. About what is not in our power. Of what is not in our power, part has its beginning or its causes in what is in our power - such are the rewards for our deeds, both in the present and in the future life - yet the rest depends on the divine will, for the existence of everything has its source in God, corruption then occurred as a result of our sin for our punishment and together for our benefit; for God did not create death, nor rejoices at the destruction of the living (Wis. 1:13). More precisely, death, as well as other executions, is from man, that is, the essence of the consequence of Adam’s crime. Everything else should be attributed to God, since our existence is the work of His creative power; continuation of being is the work of His containing power; management and salvation are the work of His providential power; eternal enjoyment of blessings is the work of His goodness towards those who act in accordance with nature, for which we were created. And since some deny Industry, let us now briefly talk about Industry. Chapter XXIX. About Industry. Providence is God's care for existing things. In other words: Providence is the will of God, by which everything that exists is properly governed. Since Providence is the will of God, it is absolutely necessary that everything that happens according to Providence should undoubtedly be the most beautiful and most worthy of the Divine, such that it could not be better. Indeed, it is necessary that one and the same person be both the Creator of existence and the Provider; for it is indecent and inconsistent with reason for one to be the Creator and the other the Provider. After all, then it would be obvious that both would be powerless - one powerless to create, the other powerless to provide. Thus, God is both the Creator and the Provider, and His creative, containing and providential power is His good will. In fact, whatever the Lord desires, the Lord has created in heaven and on earth (Ps. 134:6), and no one resists His will. He wanted everything to happen - and it did. He wants the world to preserve its existence, and it does, and everything happens according to His will 111. And that God provides and provides wonderfully, this can best be verified in the following way. God alone is good and wise by nature. As good, He provides, for he who does not provide is not good, since both people and irrational animals naturally take care of their children, and whoever does not care is subject to censure. Further, like a wise man, God takes care of things in the best possible way 112. Taking all this into account, we must marvel at all the deeds of Industry, glorify them all and accept them all without inquisitiveness, even if they seem unfair to many; for the Providence of God is invisible and incomprehensible to us, and our thoughts, deeds and future are known to God alone. All this, as I say, is not in our power; for what is in our power is not a matter of Industry, but of our free will. What depends on Providence happens either by the good will of God or by permission. By the grace of God, what is undeniably good happens. By permission, that which is not indisputably good. Thus, God often allows a righteous person to fall into misfortune in order to show others the virtue hidden in him: this was the case, for example, with Job. Sometimes God allows something strange in order to accomplish something great and wondrous through an apparently incongruous action; Thus, the salvation of people was achieved through the cross. In some cases, God allows a holy person to suffer grievously, so that the saint does not fall away from the right conscience or he does not fall into pride because of the power and grace given to him; so it was with Paul. For a while, God leaves a person to correct another, so that others, looking at him, will be corrected; so it was with Lazarus and the rich man. In fact, seeing others suffer naturally makes us humble. God leaves another person for the glory of Another, and not for his or his parents’ sins; so the man blind from birth was blind to the glory of the Son of man. God also allows someone to suffer in order to arouse jealousy in another, so that, seeing how the glory of the victim has been magnified, others may fearlessly suffer in the hope of future glory, because of the desire for future benefits, so it was with the martyrs. Sometimes God allows a person to commit a shameful act in order to correct another, even worse passion. Thus, let us assume that someone is exalted in his virtues and righteousness; God allows such a person to fall into fornication, so that through this fall he will come to the consciousness of his weakness, humble himself and come and confess to the Lord 113. It should be borne in mind that the choice of affairs is in our power, but their outcome depends on God. Moreover, the outcome of good deeds depends on divine assistance, for God, according to His foreknowledge, righteously assists those who, according to a right conscience, choose what is good. The outcome of bad deeds depends on divine permission, on the fact that God, again according to His foreknowledge, righteously leaves a person, leaving him to his own strength 114. There are two types of abandonment of a person by God: one is saving and admonishing, the other means final rejection. Saving and admonishing abandonment occurs either for the correction, salvation and glory of the sufferer, or for arousing others to zeal and imitation, or for the glory of God. Complete abandonment occurs when a person, despite the fact that God has done everything for his salvation, remains, of his own free will, insensitive and unhealed, or, better said, incurable. Then he surrenders to final destruction, like Judas. May God protect us and deliver us from such abandonment. It should be borne in mind that there are many ways of divine Providence, and they can neither be expressed in words nor comprehended with the mind. It should also be borne in mind that all sorrowful events, if people accept them with gratitude, are sent to them for their salvation and, without a doubt, benefit them. It should be borne in mind that God, first of all, wants everyone to be saved and reach His Kingdom. In fact, as good, He created us not to punish, but so that we could be partakers of His goodness; but as a just one, He wants sinners to be punished. His first desire is called preliminary will and good will and depends only on Him. The second desire is called subsequent will and permission and has its cause in us. In this case, permission, as we said above, is of two types: salvation and admonishment, and permission, meaning the rejection of a person by God and leading to complete punishment. All this is not in our control. As for those who are in our power, God wants good deeds by His preceding will and favors them, but He does not want bad deeds either by His preceding or by His subsequent will, but He allows free will to do evil; for what is done under compulsion is not rational and is not virtue. God provides for all creation, showing us benefits and admonishing us through every creation, even through the demons themselves, as can be seen from what happened with Job and the pigs. Chapter XXX. About foreknowledge and predestination. It should be borne in mind that God foresees everything, but does not predetermine everything. Thus, He foresees what is in our power, but does not predetermine it; for He does not want vice to appear, but He does not force us to virtue. Thus, predestination is a matter of Divine command based on foreknowledge. God, according to His foreknowledge, predetermines what is not in our power; for God has already predetermined everything according to His foreknowledge, as His goodness and justice require. It should be taken into account that virtue was given to us by God along with our nature and that He himself is the beginning and cause of all good. And without His cooperation and help it is impossible for us to either want or do good. But it is in our power either to remain in virtue and follow God, Who calls us to it, or to abandon virtue, that is, to live viciously and follow the devil, who, however, without coercion, calls us to this; for vice is nothing other than separation from goodness, just as darkness is separation from light. So, remaining true to our nature, we live virtuously; deviating from our nature, that is, from virtue, we come to an unnatural state and become vicious. Repentance is a return, through ascetic life and works, from an unnatural state to a natural state and from the devil to God. God created man as a husband, endowing him with His Divine grace and through it putting him into communion with Himself. By virtue of this grace, man, as a master, gave names to the animals that were given to him as slaves; for he was created in the image of God, endowed with reason, thought and freedom, and therefore naturally received power over earthly creatures from the common Creator and Ruler of all. Since the foreseeing God knew that man would commit a crime and undergo corruption, He created from him a wife, his helper and one similar to him. She was supposed to be his assistant in ensuring that the human race would be continuously preserved through birth even after the crime; for the original formation of man is called creation, and not birth. Just as creation is the first formation of man by God, so birth is the successive origin of one person from another from the time of his condemnation to death for a crime. God placed man in a paradise that was spiritual and sensual. In fact, physically he was in a sensual paradise on earth, but spiritually he talked with angels, cultivating divine thoughts and feeding on them. He was naked, for he was simple in heart and led an innocent life. Through his creations, he raised his thoughts to the One Creator, and was delighted and amused by His contemplation. And since God adorned man with free will, he gave him the law - not to eat from the tree of knowledge. We have said as much as we could about this tree in the chapter On Paradise. God gave man this commandment with such a promise that if he preserves the dignity of his soul, that is, if he gives victory to reason, does not forget the Creator and preserves His command, then he will be a partaker of eternal bliss and will live forever, becoming above death. And if he subjugates the soul to the body and prefers bodily pleasures and, not realizing his dignity and, becoming like foolish beasts, throws off the yoke of the Creator, despises His Divine commandment, then he will be guilty of death and will be subjected to corruption and labor, dragging out a miserable life. Indeed, it was not beneficial for man that he should receive incorruption unskilled and untested, lest he fall into pride and be condemned in the same way as the devil; for the latter, after his arbitrary fall, unrepentantly and invariably established himself in evil. Accordingly, the angels, having arbitrarily chosen virtue, acquired, with the assistance of grace, unshakable firmness in goodness. Therefore, it was necessary for a person to first be tested, for an untested and unsophisticated man has no value. It was necessary that, having achieved perfection through the test of fulfilling the commandment, he would thus receive immortality as a reward for virtue. In fact, being by nature something in between God and matter, man, if he had renounced all natural attachment to created being and was united by love with God, would have to be unshakably established in goodness through observance of the commandment. But when, as a result of the crime, he began to gravitate more towards substance and when his mind turned away from his Culprit, i.e. God, then corruption became characteristic of him, he became from the impassive subject to passions, from the immortal to mortal, he had a need for marriage and carnal birth, due to his addiction to life he became attached to pleasures, as something necessary for life, and those who tried to deprive him of these pleasures, became stubborn hate. His love, instead of God, turned to matter, and his anger, instead of the true enemy of his salvation, turned to people like him. So man was defeated by the envy of the devil, for the envious hater of goodness - the demon, who himself was cast down for exaltation, could not tolerate us achieving the highest blessings. Why does this liar seduce the unfortunate [i.e. e. Adam] with the hope of becoming God and, having raised him to his own heights of pride, casts him into a similar abyss of fall. Gregory the Theologian, word 29,38, 41, 45, Migne, s, gr„ t. XXXVI, coll. 77, 320 etc. Translation of part III (1889), pp. 44, 197. Gregory the Theologian, sermon 38, 45, Dionysius the Areopagite, On the Church Hierarchy, 4. Migne, s. gr., t. III, col. 177. Translation (1839), p. 18. Gregory the Theologian, word 38, 45. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man 1. Migne, s. gr..t. XI, col. 521. Translation by F. Vladimirsky (Pochaev 1904), p. 31. Gregory the Theologian, word 28. Gregory the Theologian, word 28. Migne, XXXVI, 72. Transl., 40. Cyril Alexander., Treasure, 31. Dionysius the Areopagite, On the heavenly hierarchy, 3, Migne III, 165–168. Translation, 15–17. Gregory the Theologian, word 28. Dionysius the Areopagite, On the heavenly hierarchy, 9. Gregory the Theologian, word 38. Basil the Great, On the Holy Spirit, 16. Migne, XXXII, coll. 136–137. Translation Moscow. Spirit. Acad., Part III (Moscow, 1891), 235. Some church fathers, e.g. Methodius of Patara, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom, taught that the devil and his accomplices fell from among those angels to whom the lower world was entrusted. Gregory the Theologian, word 2. Dionysius the Areopagite, On the Names of God, 4. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 1. Basil the Great, Discourse on the Sixth Day of the 1st Migne, s. gr., t. XXIX, coll. 21, 25, 28, Translation Moscow. Spirit. Acad., part 1 (Moscow, 1891), pp. 15, 18–20. Basil the Great, Conversation on the 3rd Six Days. Migne. 57. Translation, 39–40. 34. Basil the Great, Conversation on the Six Days 1 and 3. 35. Basil the Great, Conversation on the 2nd Six Days. Basil the Great, Conversation on Shestodenev 6th. 38 Basil the Great, Conversation on the Sixth Day. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 36–37. Vasily V., Conversation on Shestodnev 6th. Vasily V., Word for the Nativity of Christ. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 5. Basil the Great, Conversation on the 4th Six Days. Basil the Great, Conversation on the 8th Six Days. Basil the Great (?). Discourse on Paradise, Migne, s. gr., t. XXX, coll. 61–72. Gregory of Nyssa, On the structure of man, 2. Translation Moscow. Spirit, Acad., part 1 (1861), p. 85. Gregory the Theologian, words 38 and 45. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, I, Migne, 512, 516. Translation, 25, 27. Afanasy Alex.. Against Apollinaris, book one. About the Incarnation of the Lord. Translation Moscow. Spirit. Acad., Part III (1903), pp. 315–340. Maximus the Confessor, On the Soul, Migne, s. gr., t. XCI. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 1. Migne, 505–508. Translation, 21–22. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 23. Migne, 693. Translation, 132. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 19. Migne. 688. Translation, 127. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 20. Migne, 688–689. Translation, 128. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 21. Migne, 692. Translation, 130–131. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 6. Migne, 632–633. Translation, 90–92. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 7. Migne, 644. Translation, 97. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 10–11. Migne, 657–660. Translation, 106–107. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 9, 8. Migne, 656, 652. Translation, 104–105, 101–102. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 12. Migne, 660. Translation, 107–108. Gregory of Nyssa. On the constitution of man, 12, 14 and 15. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 13. Migne, 660, 661, 684. Translation, 108–111 Nemesius, On the Nature of Man Migne, 673, 676. Translation, 117–120. Maxim the Confessor, Letter 1, to Marin. Migne, s. gr., t. XCI. Maximus the Confessor, Letter 1, to Marin. Maximus the Confessor, Dialogue with Pyrrhus. Migne, s. gr., t. XCI. Letter 1 to Marin, Migne, s. gr., t. XCI. Maximus the Confessor, Letter 1 to Marinus, Migne, s. gr., t. XCI. Maximus the Confessor, Dialogue with Pyrrhus. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 29. Migne, 717–720. Translation, 146–147. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 30 and 31, Migne, 720–728. Translation, 147–150. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 32. Migne, 728–729. Translation. 151–152 Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 30. Migne, 720–721. Translation, 147–148. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 33. Migne, 732. Translation, 154. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, 39. Migne, 761–764. Translation, 172–174. Nemesius. 41, Migne, 773–776. Translation, 180–182. Nemesius, 42-43, Migne, 780-793. Translation. 186–193. Nemesius, 44. Migne, 813. Translation, 205. Nemesius, 44. Migne, 809–812. Translation, 203–204. Nemesius, 37. Migne. 749–753. Translation, 166–168.